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Compression of the Spinal Cord

By

Michael Rubin

, MDCM, New York Presbyterian Hospital-Cornell Medical Center

Reviewed/Revised Feb 2023
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Injuries and disorders can put pressure on the spinal cord, causing back or neck pain, tingling, muscle weakness, and other symptoms.

  • The spinal cord may be compressed by bone, blood (hematomas), pus (abscesses), tumors (cancerous or not), or a ruptured or herniated disk.

  • Symptoms, such as back or neck pain, abnormal sensations, muscle weakness, or impaired bladder and bowel control, may be mild or severe.

  • Doctors base the diagnosis on symptoms and the results of a physical examination, magnetic resonance imaging, or other imaging tests.

  • Corticosteroids are often given to reduce swelling in or around the spinal cord and thus help reduce pressure on the spinal cord.

  • Depending on the cause, surgery and/or radiation therapy may be used to relieve the pressure.

Normally, the spinal cord is protected by the spine, but certain injuries and disorders may put pressure (compress) on the spinal cord, disrupting its normal function. These injuries and disorders may also compress the roots of spinal nerves, which pass through the spaces between the back bones (vertebrae), or the bundle of nerves that extend downward from the spinal cord (cauda equina Cauda Equina Syndrome Cauda equina syndrome occurs when the bundle of nerves that extends from the bottom of the spinal cord is compressed or damaged. The most common cause of cauda equina syndrome is a herniated... read more ).

The Spine and Spinal Cord
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Spinal cord compression may occur

  • Suddenly, causing symptoms in minutes or over a few hours or days to weeks

  • Slowly and gradually, causing symptoms that worsen over months to years

Causes of Spinal Cord Compression

The spinal cord may be compressed by the following:

How quickly compression occurs varies.

Compression that develops in minutes or a few hours typically results from

  • An injury (the most common cause), which often results in a fracture or dislocation of a vertebra

  • Hematomas

  • Ruptured disks

Compression that develops over days to weeks typically results from

  • Metastatic tumors

  • Abscesses

At some point, compression by a tumor or abscess starts to block blood flow to the spinal cord. Lack of blood injures the spinal cord and causes it to swell. The swelling blocks blood flow even more, creating a vicious circle of more and more swelling of and injury to the cord. This vicious circle may develop over a few days, hours, or sometimes minutes. It is a major medical emergency that requires immediate treatment.

Compression may develop gradually, over months to years. Typical causes include

Symptoms of Spinal Cord Compression

Slight compression may cause mild symptoms if it disrupts only some nerve impulses going up and down the spinal cord. These symptoms may include

If the spinal cord in the low back is compressed, pain may radiate down a leg, sometimes to the foot. If the spinal cord in the neck is affected, pain may radiate down the arms. If the cause is cancer, an abscess, or a hematoma, the back or neck may be tender to the touch in the affected area. Sometimes sensation is lost. Reflexes, including the urge to urinate, may be lost. If compression increases, symptoms may worsen.

Substantial compression may block most nerve impulses, causing

  • Severe muscle weakness

  • Numbness

  • Retention of urine

  • Loss of bladder and bowel control

If all nerve impulses are blocked, the following result:

  • Paralysis (which can cause problems with breathing if the spinal cord in the neck is compressed)

  • Complete loss of sensation in the area controlled by the part of the spinal cord below the compressed part

Once compression begins to cause symptoms, the damage can worsen, depending on the cause, within minutes or over hours to days.

Diagnosis of Spinal Cord Compression

  • Physical examination

  • Magnetic resonance imaging or myelography with computed tomography

People with symptoms suggesting spinal cord compression require immediate medical attention because prompt diagnosis and treatment may reverse or lessen loss of function.

Because the spinal cord is organized in a specific way, doctors can determine which part of the spinal cord is affected based on the symptoms and results of a physical examination. For example, if the legs (but not the arms) are weak and numb and bladder and bowel functions are impaired, the spine may be damaged at the midchest (thoracic) or lower back (lumbar) level. The location of pain or tenderness along the spine also helps doctors determine the site of the damage.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is done immediately if possible. Or if MRI is unavailable, myelography Myelography Diagnostic procedures may be needed to confirm a diagnosis suggested by the medical history and neurologic examination. Imaging tests commonly used to diagnose nervous system (neurologic) disorders... read more Myelography with computed tomography (CT) is done. These tests usually show where the spinal cord is compressed and may indicate the cause. These tests can detect a fracture or dislocation of a vertebra, a herniated disk, an abnormal bone growth, an area of bleeding, an abscess, or a tumor. Myelography with CT involves doing CT of the spinal column after a spinal tap Spinal Tap Spinal Tap (lumbar puncture) is done to inject a small amount of radiopaque contrast agent, which can be seen on x-rays, into the space around the cord. Thus, doctors can determine whether compression completely blocks the normal flow of cerebrospinal fluid through this space.

If the cause is thought to be a fracture or dislocation due to injury, x-rays may also be taken. They provide information quickly, enabling doctors to quickly evaluate the problem.

The cause of the compression can be confirmed during surgery to relieve pressure on the spinal cord.

If MRI or myelography with CT detects an unidentifiable abnormal mass causing compression, doctors first decide whether it needs to be removed. If not, doctors usually do a biopsy. They may remove a sample of tissue for testing by inserting a needle into the mass (usually guided by CT) or sometimes by doing a surgical procedure.

Treatment of Spinal Cord Compression

  • Usually surgery

  • Sometimes corticosteroids given intravenously

  • For tumors, usually radiation therapy (with or without surgery)

  • For abscesses or hematomas, sometimes drainage

If loss of function is partial or very recent (usually when compression occurs suddenly), the compression must be relieved immediately. When compression is detected and treated quickly, before nerve pathways are destroyed, treatment can prevent permanent damage to the spinal cord, and function is usually recovered. Surgery is typically needed to relieve compression. Surgery may also be needed to insert rods, screws, and/or pins and thus stabilize the spine.

Other treatment varies depending on the cause.

For certain disorders (such as tumors), high doses of corticosteroids, such as dexamethasone or methylprednisolone, are given intravenously as soon as possible. Corticosteroids can reduce swelling in or around the spinal cord, which may be contributing to compression. Immediately after corticosteroids are given, tumors are removed surgically and/or treated with radiation therapy.

Surgery is done in the following cases:

  • Symptoms worsen despite treatment.

  • A biopsy is needed.

  • The spine is unstable.

  • Tumors are present or recur after radiation therapy.

  • Doctors suspect the cause is an abscess or a hematoma.

If an abscess causes symptoms of spinal cord dysfunction (such as paralysis and loss of bowel or bladder control), a neurosurgeon surgically drains the abscess as soon as possible. Antibiotics are also given. If symptoms of spinal cord dysfunction have not developed, drawing the pus out through a needle, giving antibiotics, or both may be all that is needed.

If a hematoma is the cause, the accumulated blood is surgically drained immediately. People who have a bleeding disorder or who are taking certain anticoagulants are given medications that help reverse the effect of the anticoagulant. People are also given transfusions of plasma to eliminate or reduce the tendency to bleed.

Drugs Mentioned In This Article

Generic Name Select Brand Names
AK-Dex, Baycadron, Dalalone, Dalalone D.P, Dalalone L.A, Decadron, Decadron-LA, Dexabliss, Dexacort PH Turbinaire, Dexacort Respihaler, DexPak Jr TaperPak, DexPak TaperPak, Dextenza, DEXYCU, DoubleDex, Dxevo, Hemady, HiDex, Maxidex, Ocu-Dex , Ozurdex, ReadySharp Dexamethasone, Simplist Dexamethasone, Solurex, TaperDex, ZCORT, Zema-Pak, ZoDex, ZonaCort 11 Day, ZonaCort 7 Day
A-Methapred, Depmedalone-40, Depmedalone-80 , Depo-Medrol, Medrol, Medrol Dosepak, Solu-Medrol
NOTE: This is the Consumer Version. DOCTORS: VIEW PROFESSIONAL VERSION
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