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  • Cardiovascular Disorders
 
Cardiovascular Disorders
Approach to the Cardiac Patient
expand / collapseIntroduction
History
expand / collapse Cardiovascular Examination
expand / collapse Vital Signs
Orthostatic changes
Pulsus paradoxus
expand / collapse Pulses
Peripheral pulses
Carotid pulses
expand / collapse Veins
Peripheral veins
Neck veins
expand / collapse Chest Inspection and Palpation
Inspection
Palpation
expand / collapse Cardiac Auscultation
Systolic heart sounds
Diastolic heart sounds
Approach to murmurs
Systolic murmurs
Diastolic murmurs
Continuous murmurs
Pericardial friction rub
expand / collapseExtremity and Abdominal Examination
Extremities
Abdomen
Symptoms of Cardiovascular Disorders
expand / collapse Chest Pain
Pathophysiology
Etiology
expand / collapseEvaluation
History
Physical examination
Red flags
Interpretation of findings
Testing
Treatment
Geriatrics Essentials
Key Points
expand / collapse Edema
Pathophysiology
Etiology
expand / collapseEvaluation
History
Physical examination
Red flags
Interpretation of findings
Testing
Treatment
Geriatrics Essentials
Key Points
expand / collapse Orthostatic Hypotension
Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS)
Pathophysiology
Etiology
expand / collapseEvaluation
History
Physical examination
Red flags
Interpretation of findings
Testing
Treatment
Geriatrics Essentials
Key Points
expand / collapse Palpitations
Pathophysiology
expand / collapseEtiology
Causes of arrhythmias
Consequences
expand / collapseEvaluation
History
Physical examination
Red flags
Interpretation of findings
Testing
Treatment
Geriatrics Essentials
Key Points
expand / collapse Syncope
expand / collapsePathophysiology
Insufficient cerebral blood flow
Insufficient cerebral substrate
Etiology
expand / collapseEvaluation
History
Physical examination
Red flags
Interpretation of findings
Testing
Treatment
Geriatrics Essentials
Key Points
expand / collapse Limb Pain
Etiology
expand / collapseEvaluation
History
Physical examination
Red flags
Interpretation of findings
Testing
Treatment
Key Points
Cardiovascular Tests and Procedures
Overview of Cardiovascular Tests and Procedures
expand / collapse Cardiac Catheterization
Procedure
expand / collapseSpecific Tests During Cardiac Catheterization
Angiography
Intravascular ultrasonography
Tests for cardiac shunts
Measurement of cardiac output and flow
Endomyocardial biopsy
Coronary artery flow measurements
Contraindications
Complications
expand / collapse Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting (CABG)
expand / collapseTraditional CABG Procedure
Complications
Alternative CABG Procedures
expand / collapse Echocardiography
Techniques
Methodology
Stress echocardiography
expand / collapse Electrocardiography (ECG)
expand / collapse Standard ECG Components
P wave
PR interval
QRS complex
QT interval
ST segment
T wave
U wave
expand / collapseSpecialized ECG Tests
Additional precordial leads
Esophageal lead
Signal averaging
Continuous ST-segment monitoring
QT dispersion
Heart rate variability
Holter monitor
Event recorder
Electrophysiologic Studies (EPS)
expand / collapse Cardiac Imaging Tests
Chest x-rays
CT
MRI
Positron emission tomography (PET)
expand / collapse Percutaneous Coronary Interventions (PCI)
Procedure
Stents
Types of stents
Anticoagulation
Contraindications
Complications
expand / collapse Radionuclide Imaging
Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)
Myocardial Perfusion Imaging
Infarct Avid Imaging
expand / collapse Radionuclide Ventriculography
LV
RV
Valves
Shunts
expand / collapse Stress Testing
expand / collapseStress Methodology
Exercise stress testing
Pharmacologic stress testing
Diagnostic Methodology
Tilt Table Testing
Hypertension
expand / collapse Overview of Hypertension
expand / collapseEtiology
Primary hypertension
Secondary hypertension
expand / collapse Pathophysiology
Abnormal Na transport
Sympathetic nervous system
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
Vasodilator deficiency
Pathology and complications
Symptoms and Signs
expand / collapseDiagnosis
History
Physical examination
Testing
Prognosis
expand / collapse General Treatment
Lifestyle modifications
Drugs
Devices and physical interventions
expand / collapse Drugs for Hypertension
Diuretics
β−Blockers
Ca channel blockers
ACE inhibitors
Angiotensin II receptor blockers
Direct renin inhibitor
Adrenergic modifiers
Direct vasodilators
Key Points
expand / collapse Renovascular Hypertension
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
expand / collapse Hypertensive Emergencies
Hypertensive urgencies
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
Arteriosclerosis
Definition of Arteriosclerosis
expand / collapse Atherosclerosis
Pathophysiology
expand / collapse Risk Factors
Documented vascular disease
Symptoms and Signs
expand / collapseDiagnosis
Symptomatic patients
Asymptomatic patients (screening)
expand / collapseTreatment
Diet
Physical activity
Antiplatelet drugs
Other drugs
Key Points
Nonatheromatous Arteriosclerosis
Coronary Artery Disease
expand / collapseOverview of Coronary Artery Disease
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Risk Factors
Anatomy
expand / collapseTreatment
PCI
CABG
Prevention
expand / collapse Angina Pectoris
Etiology
Pathophysiology
expand / collapseSymptoms and Signs
Unstable angina
expand / collapseDiagnosis
ECG
Stress testing
Angiography
Imaging
Prognosis
expand / collapseTreatment
Drugs
Revascularization
Variant Angina
Syndrome X
Silent Ischemia
expand / collapse Acute Coronary Syndromes (ACS)
Etiology
expand / collapsePathophysiology
Myocardial dysfunction
MI
Electrical dysfunction
Classification
expand / collapseSymptoms and Signs
Unstable angina
NSTEMI and STEMI
expand / collapseDiagnosis
ECG
Cardiac markers
Coronary angiography
Other tests
expand / collapse Prognosis
Unstable angina
NSTEMI and STEMI
General Treatment
expand / collapse Drugs
Antiplatelet drugs
Anticoagulant drugs
β-Blockers
Nitrates
Fibrinolytics
Other drugs
expand / collapse Revascularization Modalities and Indications
Unstable angina and NSTEMI
STEMI
expand / collapse Complications
Sinus node disturbances
Atrial arrhythmias
Conduction defects
Ventricular arrhythmias
Heart failure
Papillary muscle disorders
Myocardial rupture
Ventricular aneurysm
Hypotension and cardiogenic shock
RV ischemia or infarction
Recurrent ischemia
Mural thrombosis
Pericarditis
Post-MI syndrome (Dressler's syndrome)
expand / collapse Rehabilitation and Postdischarge Treatment
Functional evaluation
Activity
Risk factors
Drugs
Heart Failure
expand / collapse Heart Failure (HF)
Physiology
expand / collapsePathophysiology
Systolic dysfunction
Diastolic dysfunction
LV failure
RV failure
Cardiac response
Hemodynamic responses
Renal responses
Neurohumoral responses
Changes with aging
Etiology
Classification
expand / collapseSymptoms and Signs
History
Examination
expand / collapseDiagnosis
Chest x-ray
ECG
Imaging
Blood tests
Other tests
expand / collapsePrognosis
End-of-life care
expand / collapse Treatment
General management
Arrhythmias
Device therapy
Surgery
Experimental therapies
Persistent HF
expand / collapseDrugs
Diuretics
ACE inhibitors
ARBs
Aldosterone receptor blockers
β-Blockers
Vasodilators
Digitalis preparations
Other drugs
expand / collapse Pulmonary Edema
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
expand / collapse Cor Pulmonale
Pathophysiology
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Arrhythmias and Conduction Disorders
expand / collapseOverview of Arrhythmias
Anatomy
expand / collapsePhysiology
Electrophysiology
Normal rhythm
Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
expand / collapse Diagnosis
Bradyarrhythmias
Tachyarrhythmias
Treatment
expand / collapse Drugs for Arrhythmias
Class I
Class II
Class III
Class IV
expand / collapseDevices and Procedures
Direct-current (DC) cardioversion-defibrillation
Pacemakers
Cardiac resynchronization therapy
Implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs)
Radiofrequency (RF) ablation
Surgery
expand / collapse Sinus Node Dysfunction
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
expand / collapse Ectopic Supraventricular Rhythms
Atrial premature beats
Wandering atrial pacemaker
Multifocal atrial tachycardia
Atrial tachycardia
Nonparoxysmal junctional tachycardia
expand / collapse Atrioventricular Block
First-degree AV block
Second-degree AV block
Third-degree AV block
expand / collapse Atrial Fibrillation (AF)
Complications
Etiology
Classification
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
expand / collapseTreatment
Ventricular rate control
Rhythm control
Ablation procedures
Prevention of thromboembolism
Key Points
expand / collapse Atrial Flutter
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
expand / collapse Reentrant Supraventricular Tachycardias (SVT, PSVT)
expand / collapsePathophysiology
Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) syndrome
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
Atrial Fibrillation and Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome (WPW)
Bundle Branch and Fascicular Block
expand / collapse Ventricular Premature Beats (VPB)
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
expand / collapse Ventricular Tachycardia (VT)
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
expand / collapseTreatment
Acute
Long-term
Key Points
expand / collapse Long QT Syndrome and Torsades de Pointes Ventricular Tachycardia
Congenital
Drug-induced
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
Brugada Syndrome
Ventricular Fibrillation (VF)
Valvular Disorders
Overview of Cardiac Valvular Disorders
expand / collapse Aortic Regurgitation
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Key Points
expand / collapse Aortic Stenosis
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Key Points
expand / collapse Mitral Valve Prolapse (MVP)
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Key Points
expand / collapse Mitral Regurgitation
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Key Points
expand / collapse Mitral Stenosis
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Key Points
expand / collapse Pulmonic Regurgitation
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
expand / collapse Pulmonic Stenosis
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
expand / collapse Tricuspid Regurgitation
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Key Points
expand / collapse Tricuspid Stenosis
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
Endocarditis
Definition of Endocarditis
expand / collapse Infective Endocarditis
expand / collapseEtiology
Endocardial factors
Microorganisms
expand / collapsePathophysiology
Local consequences
Systemic consequences
Classification
expand / collapseSymptoms and Signs
SBE
ABE and PVE
Right-sided endocarditis
Diagnosis
Prognosis
expand / collapseTreatment
Antibiotic regimens
Cardiac valve surgery
Response to treatment
expand / collapse Prevention
Patients
Procedures
Antibiotic regimens
expand / collapse Noninfective Endocarditis
expand / collapseEtiology
Marantic endocarditis
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Pericarditis
expand / collapsePericarditis
Anatomy
Pathophysiology
Etiology
expand / collapseSymptoms and Signs
Acute pericarditis
Pericardial effusion
Cardiac tamponade
Constrictive pericarditis
expand / collapseDiagnosis
Acute pericarditis
Pericardial effusion
Constrictive pericarditis
Cardiac tamponade
Diagnosis of cause
Treatment
Key Points
Diseases of the Aorta and Its Branches
expand / collapse Aortic Aneurysms
expand / collapseAbdominal Aortic Aneurysms (AAA)
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
expand / collapse Thoracic Aortic Aneurysms
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
expand / collapseAortic Branch Aneurysms
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
expand / collapse Aortic Dissection
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Aortitis
expand / collapse Abdominal Aortic Branch Occlusion
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Peripheral Arterial Disorders
Acrocyanosis
Erythromelalgia
Fibromuscular Dysplasia
Peripheral Arterial Aneurysms
expand / collapse Peripheral Arterial Disease
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
expand / collapseTreatment
Percutaneous transluminal intervention
Surgery
External compression therapy
Acute Peripheral Arterial Occlusion
expand / collapse Raynaud's Syndrome
Symptoms and Signs
expand / collapseDiagnosis
Clinical findings
Laboratory testing
Treatment
expand / collapse Thromboangiitis Obliterans
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Peripheral Venous Disorders
expand / collapse Deep Venous Thrombosis (DVT)
Etiology
expand / collapsePathophysiology
Complications
Symptoms and Signs
expand / collapseDiagnosis
Ultrasonography
d-Dimer
Venography
Other testing
Determination of cause
Prognosis
expand / collapseTreatment
Anticoagulants
Inferior vena cava filter (IVCF)
Thrombolytic (fibrinolytic) drugs
Surgery
Prevention
Key Points
expand / collapse Chronic Venous Insufficiency and Postphlebitic Syndrome
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Key Points
Superficial Venous Thrombosis
expand / collapse Varicose Veins
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Idiopathic Telangiectasias
Arteriovenous Fistula
Lymphatic Disorders
expand / collapse Overview of the Lymphatic System
Disorders of the lymphatic system
expand / collapse Lymphadenopathy
Pathophysiology
Etiology
expand / collapseEvaluation
History
Physical examination
Red flags
Interpretation of findings
Testing
Treatment
Key Points
expand / collapse Lymphedema
expand / collapseEtiology
Primary lymphedemas
Secondary lymphedema
expand / collapseSymptoms and Signs
Complications
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Sports and the Heart
expand / collapse Sudden Cardiac Death in Athletes
Screening
Key Points
expand / collapse Athlete's Heart
Symptoms and Signs
expand / collapseDiagnosis
ECG
Echocardiography
Stress testing
Prognosis
Treatment
Key Points
Cardiac Tumors
expand / collapseCardiac Tumors
expand / collapseClassification
Benign primary tumors
Malignant primary tumors
Metastatic tumors
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Cardiomyopathies
Overview of Cardiomyopathies
expand / collapse Dilated Cardiomyopathy
Pathophysiology
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
expand / collapse Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
expand / collapse Restrictive Cardiomyopathy
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Audio
Figures
Photographs
Sidebars
Tables
Videos

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