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Bullous Pemphigoid

By

Daniel M. Peraza

, MD, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth University

Reviewed/Revised Feb 2024
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Topic Resources

Bullous pemphigoid is a chronic autoimmune skin disorder resulting in generalized, pruritic, bullous lesions in older adults. Mucous membrane involvement is rare. Diagnosis is by skin biopsy and immunofluorescence testing of skin and serum. Topical and systemic corticosteroids are used initially. Most patients require long-term maintenance therapy, for which a variety of immunosuppressants can be used.

Bullae are elevated, fluid-filled blisters ≥ 10 mm in diameter.

Bullous pemphigoid occurs more often in patients > age 60 but can occur in children. IgG autoantibodies bind to certain hemidesmosomal antigens (BPAg1 [BP230], BPAg2 [BP180]), resulting in the activation of complement to form a subepidermal blister (see figure Skin Cleavage Levels in Pemphigus and Bullous Pemphigoid Skin cleavage levels in pemphigus and bullous pemphigoid Skin cleavage levels in pemphigus and bullous pemphigoid ).

Skin Cleavage Levels in Pemphigus and Bullous Pemphigoid

Pemphigus foliaceus blisters form in the superficial layers of the epidermis. Pemphigus vulgaris blisters can form at any epidermal level but typically form in the lower aspects of the epidermis. Bullous pemphigoid blisters form subepidermally (lamina lucida of the basement membrane zone). In this figure, the basement membrane zone is disproportionately enlarged to display its layers.

Skin Cleavage Levels in Pemphigus and Bullous Pemphigoid

Etiology of Bullous Pemphigoid

No cause of bullous pemphigoid has been proved; however, the following triggers have been suggested:

Genetic and environmental factors may play a role.

Triggers may induce an autoimmune reaction by mimicking molecular sequences in the epidermal basement membrane (molecular mimicry, as with drugs and possibly infections), by exposing or altering normally tolerated host antigens (as with physical triggers and certain disorders), or by other mechanisms. Epitope spreading refers to the recruitment of autoreactive lymphocytes against normally tolerated host antigens, which contributes to disease chronicity and course.

Certain central nervous system (CNS) and psychiatric disorders may precede bullous pemphigoid, especially multiple sclerosis Multiple Sclerosis (MS) Multiple sclerosis (MS) is characterized by disseminated patches of demyelination in the brain and spinal cord. Common symptoms include visual and oculomotor abnormalities, paresthesias, weakness... read more Multiple Sclerosis (MS) and schizophrenia Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is characterized by psychosis (loss of contact with reality), hallucinations (false perceptions), delusions (false beliefs), disorganized speech and behavior, flattened affect... read more , but also dementias Dementia Dementia is chronic, global, usually irreversible deterioration of cognition. Diagnosis is clinical; laboratory and imaging tests are usually used to identify treatable causes. Treatment is... read more , intracranial bleeds Intracerebral Hemorrhage Intracerebral hemorrhage is focal bleeding from a blood vessel in the brain parenchyma. The cause is usually hypertension. Typical symptoms include focal neurologic deficits, often with abrupt... read more Intracerebral Hemorrhage , stroke Overview of Stroke Strokes are a heterogeneous group of disorders involving sudden, focal interruption of cerebral blood flow that causes neurologic deficit. Strokes can be Ischemic (80%), typically resulting... read more Overview of Stroke , delusional and personality disorders Overview of Personality Disorders Personality disorders in general are pervasive, enduring patterns of thinking, perceiving, reacting, and relating that cause significant distress or functional impairment. Personality disorders... read more , and Parkinson disease Parkinson Disease Parkinson disease is a slowly progressive, degenerative disorder characterized by resting tremor, stiffness (rigidity), slow and decreased movement (bradykinesia), and eventually gait and/or... read more . To a lesser degree, these disorders may be preceded by bullous pemphigoid. Hypothesized shared causes include a cross-reactive immune response between neural and cutaneous antigens (BPAg1 is expressed in the CNS), as well as triggering by certain drugs used to treat the CNS disorders (eg, phenothiazine antipsychotics, spironolactone); however, a mechanism of triggering by drugs is not understood.

Symptoms and Signs of Bullous Pemphigoid

Pruritus is the first symptom of bullous pemphigoid. Skin lesions may not develop for several years. Often, characteristic tense bullae develop on skin of the trunk and in the flexural and intertriginous areas. Bullae may develop on normal-appearing skin or may be preceded by erythematous or urticarial-appearing plaques. Localized disease may occur at trauma sites, stomas, and anogenital and lower leg areas. Dyshidrotic pemphigoid is a rare form of bullous pemphigoid that affects the hands and feet and can look like dyshidrotic dermatitis (a form of hand and foot dermatitis Hand and Foot Dermatitis Hand and foot dermatitis is a dermatitis affecting the hands and/or feet. It can be due to a contact dermatitis (allergic or irritant) or atopic dermatitis. Manifestations are erythema, scaling... read more Hand and Foot Dermatitis ) on the palms. Bullae usually do not rupture, but those that do often rapidly heal.

Polymorphic, annular, dusky-red, edematous lesions, with or without peripheral vesicles, can occur. Rarely, small blisters develop on the mucosa. Leukocytosis and eosinophilia are common, but fever is rare. The Nikolsky sign, where upper layers of epidermis move laterally with slight pressure or rubbing of skin adjacent to a blister, is negative.

Manifestations of Bullous Pemphigoid

Diagnosis of Bullous Pemphigoid

  • Skin biopsy and IgG titers

If blisters develop, bullous pemphigoid needs to be differentiated from pemphigus vulgaris Pemphigus Vulgaris Pemphigus vulgaris is an uncommon, potentially fatal, autoimmune disorder characterized by intraepidermal blisters and extensive erosions on apparently healthy skin and mucous membranes. Diagnosis... read more Pemphigus Vulgaris , a blistering disorder with a worse prognosis; differentiation is usually possible using clinical criteria.

Table

Test results help differentiate bullous pemphigoid from pemphigus vulgaris, linear IgA disease Linear Immunoglobulin A (IgA) Disease Linear immunoglobulin A (IgA) disease is an uncommon bullous disease distinguished from bullous pemphigoid and dermatitis herpetiformis by linear deposits of IgA in the basement membrane zone... read more Linear Immunoglobulin A (IgA) Disease , erythema multiforme Erythema Multiforme Erythema multiforme is an inflammatory reaction, characterized by target or iris skin lesions. Oral mucosa may be involved. Diagnosis is clinical. Lesions spontaneously resolve but frequently... read more Erythema Multiforme , drug-induced eruptions Drug Eruptions and Reactions Drugs can cause multiple skin eruptions and reactions. The most serious of these are discussed elsewhere in THE MANUAL and include Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis, hypersensitivity... read more Drug Eruptions and Reactions , mucous membrane pemphigoid Mucous Membrane Pemphigoid Mucous membrane pemphigoid is the designation given to a heterogeneous group of rare chronic autoimmune disorders that tend to cause waxing and waning bullous lesions of the mucous membranes... read more , paraneoplastic pemphigoid, dermatitis herpetiformis Dermatitis Herpetiformis Dermatitis herpetiformis is an intensely pruritic, chronic, autoimmune, papulovesicular cutaneous eruption strongly associated with celiac disease. Typical findings are clusters of intensely... read more Dermatitis Herpetiformis , and epidermolysis bullosa acquisita Epidermolysis Bullosa Acquisita Epidermolysis bullosa acquisita is a rare, acquired, chronic condition characterized by subepidermal blistering. Diagnosis is by skin biopsy and direct immunofluorescence. Treatment is with... read more .

If bullous pemphigoid is suspected, skin biopsy is done for histology and direct immunofluorescence testing. Samples from in and around the lesion itself are often used for histology, but samples of uninvolved skin (often about 3 mm from the edge of a lesion) are used for direct immunofluorescence. The blister in bullous pemphigoid is subepidermal, often containing many neutrophils and eosinophils. Direct immunofluorescence shows linear IgG and complement deposits along the basement membrane zone (dermal–epidermal junction). Indirect immunofluorescence shows circulating IgG deposits on the epidermal side of a salt-split preparation of normal (ie, test substrate) skin.

Serum is tested for IgG antibodies to BPAg1 and BPAg2 using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Circulating IgG autoantibodies are present in about three fourths of patients (1 Diagnosis references Bullous pemphigoid is a chronic autoimmune skin disorder resulting in generalized, pruritic, bullous lesions in older adults. Mucous membrane involvement is rare. Diagnosis is by skin biopsy... read more Diagnosis references ). Newer, potentially more accurate ELISA tests are under investigation.

Diagnosis references

  • 1. van Beek N, Krüger S, Fuhrmann T, et al: Multicenter prospective study on multivariant diagnostics of autoimmune bullous dermatoses using the BIOCHIP technology. J Am Acad Dermatol 83(5):1315-1322, 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.jaad.2020.01.049

Treatment of Bullous Pemphigoid

  • Corticosteroids, topical or oral

  • Anti-inflammatory drugs

  • Immunosuppressant drugs

High-potency topical corticosteroids (eg, clobetasol 0.05% cream) should be used for localized disease and may reduce the required dose of systemic drugs (1 Treatment reference Bullous pemphigoid is a chronic autoimmune skin disorder resulting in generalized, pruritic, bullous lesions in older adults. Mucous membrane involvement is rare. Diagnosis is by skin biopsy... read more Treatment reference ).

Patients with generalized disease often require systemic treatment with prednisone 0.5 mg/kg orally once a day, which can be tapered to a maintenance level of 0.1 mg/kg/day after several weeks. Most patients achieve remission after 2 to 10 months, but treatment may need to continue for several years before the disease process remits enough to allow discontinuation. If long-term therapy is necessary, a new blister every few weeks does not require increasing the prednisone dose.

Bullous pemphigoid occasionally responds to the anti-inflammatory activity of certain drugs, such as the combination of tetracycline or minocycline and nicotinamide. Other treatment options include monotherapy with dapsone, sulfapyridine, or erythromycin. IV immune globulin has been used occasionally.

For patients with generalized and recalcitrant disease, and sometimes to decrease corticosteroid dose in chronic disease, immunosuppressants such as methotrexate, azathioprine, mycophenolate mofetil, and cyclosporine may be used. Among the biologics, rituximab, dupilumab, omalizumab, and intravenous immunoglobulins may be used.

Treatment reference

  • 1. Borradori L, Van Beek N, Feliciani C, et al: Updated S2 K guidelines for the management of bullous pemphigoid initiated by the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology (EADV). J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 36(10):1689-1704, 2022. doi: 10.1111/jdv.18220

Prognosis for Bullous Pemphigoid

Bullous pemphigoid is a chronic disease. Although topical and systemic therapies are helpful, they may cause adverse effects.

Remission is typical within months, but treatment is sometimes needed for several years.

Key Points

  • Bullous pemphigoid usually affects patients > age 60 and is autoimmune and idiopathic.

  • Pruritus may precede development of a rash by years, and mucous membrane involvement is rare.

  • Biopsy the skin for histology and immunofluorescence testing and measure circulating autoantibodies.

  • Treat patients with high-potency topical corticosteroids when possible to avoid or minimize use of systemic corticosteroids.

  • Anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressant therapy may be used to limit corticosteroid dose.

  • Symptoms usually lessen within months, but treatment is sometimes needed for several years.

Drugs Mentioned In This Article

Drug Name Select Trade
Delone , FUROSCIX, Lasix
Aldactone, CAROSPIR
Prilosec, Prilosec OTC
IMFINZI
Opdivo
Keytruda
Azulfidine, Azulfidine En-Tabs, Sulfazine , Sulfazine EC
Cuprimine, Depen, D-PENAMINE
Enbrel
Dritho-Creme HP , Dritho-Scalp, Micanol, Psoriatec, ZITHRANOL, ZITHRANOL-RR
Clobetavix, Clobevate, Clobex, Clodan, Cormax, Embeline, Embeline E, Impeklo, Impoyz, Olux, Olux-E, Olux-Olux-E Complete Pack, Temovate, Temovate E, Temovate Scalp, Tovet
Deltasone, Predone, RAYOS, Sterapred, Sterapred DS
Emtet-500, Panmycin, Sumycin
Amzeeq, Arestin, Dynacin, Minocin, minolira, Myrac, Solodyn, Ximino, Zilxi
Aczone
A/T/S, Akne-mycin, E.E.S., Emcin Clear , EMGEL, E-Mycin, ERYC, Erycette, Eryderm , Erygel, Erymax, EryPed, Ery-Tab, Erythra Derm , Erythrocin, Erythrocin Lactobionate, Erythrocin Stearate, Ilosone, Ilotycin, My-E, PCE, PCE Dispertab , Romycin, Staticin, T-Stat
Jylamvo, Otrexup, Rasuvo, RediTrex, Rheumatrex, Trexall, Xatmep
Azasan, Imuran
CellCept, Myfortic
Cequa, Gengraf , Neoral, Restasis, Sandimmune, SangCya, Verkazia, Vevye
RIABNI, Rituxan, RUXIENCE, truxima
DUPIXENT
Xolair, Xolair Prefilled
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