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Oral squamous cell carcinoma affects about 30,000 Americans each year. Over 95% smoke, drink alcohol, or both. Early, curable lesions are rarely symptomatic; thus, preventing fatal disease requires early detection by screening. Treatment is with surgery, radiation, or both. The overall 5-yr survival rate (all sites and stages combined) is > 50%.
In the US, 3% of cancers in men and 2% in women are oral squamous cell carcinomas, most of which occur after age 50. Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common oral or pharyngeal cancer (and the most common at head and neck sites in general).
The chief risk factors for oral squamous cell carcinoma are smoking (especially > 2 packs/day) and alcohol use. Risk increases dramatically when alcohol use exceeds 6 oz of distilled liquor, 6 oz of wine, or 12 oz of beer/day. The combination of heavy smoking and alcohol abuse is estimated to raise the risk 100-fold in women and 38-fold in men. Squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue may also result from any chronic irritation, such as dental caries, overuse of mouthwash, chewing tobacco, or the use of betel quid. Oral human papillomavirus (HPV), typically acquired via oral-genital contact, may have a role in etiology.
About 40% of intraoral squamous cell carcinomas begin on the floor of the mouth or on the lateral and ventral surfaces of the tongue. About 38% of all oral squamous cell carcinomas occur on the lower lip; these are usually solar-related cancers on the external surface. About 11% begin in the palate and tonsillar area. Squamous cell carcinoma of the tonsil (an oropharyngeal cancer), 2nd in frequency only to carcinoma of the larynx among cancers of the upper respiratory tract, occurs predominantly in males.
Symptoms and Signs
Oral lesions are asymptomatic initially, highlighting the need for oral screening. Most dental professionals carefully examine the oral cavity and oropharynx during routine care and may do a brush biopsy of abnormal areas. The lesions may appear as areas of erythroplakia or leukoplakia and may be exophytic or ulcerated. Cancers are often indurated and firm with a rolled border. Tonsillar carcinoma usually manifests as an asymmetric swelling and sore throat, with pain often radiating to the ipsilateral ear. A metastatic mass in the neck may be the first symptom, particularly in tonsillar cancer.
Diagnosis
Biopsy of suspect areas is done. Direct laryngoscopy, bronchoscopy, and esophagoscopy are done to exclude a simultaneous second primary cancer. Head and neck CT usually is done. Chest x-ray is done; chest CT is done if an advanced stage is suspected or confirmed.
Prognosis
If carcinoma of the tongue is localized (no lymph node involvement), 5-yr survival is > 50%. For localized carcinoma of the floor of the mouth, 5-yr survival is 65%. Lymph node metastasis decreases survival rate by about 50%. Metastases reach the regional lymph nodes first and later the lungs.
For lower lip lesions, 5-yr survival is 90%, and metastases are rare. Carcinoma of the upper lip tends to be more aggressive and metastatic. For carcinoma of the palate and tonsillar area, 5-yr survival is 68% if patients are treated before lymph node involvement but only 17% after involvement. The prognosis for tonsillar carcinoma is often better stage for stage than that for oral cancers. Oropharyngeal cancer associated with HPV infection may have a better prognosis.
Treatment
Surgery and radiation therapy are the treatments of choice. Regional or distant disease necessitates a more radical treatment approach. (See also the National Cancer Institute's summary Lip and Oral Cavity Cancer (PDQ®): Treatment.)
For tongue lesions, surgery is usually the initial treatment, particularly for early-stage disease. Selective neck dissection is indicated if the risk of nodal disease exceeds 15 to 20%. Routine surgical reconstruction is the key to reducing postoperative oral disabilities; procedures range from local tissue flaps to free tissue transfers. Speech and swallowing therapy may be required after significant resections. Radiation therapy is an alternative treatment. Chemotherapy is not used routinely but is recommended on an individual basis; rare distant metastases are present in sites where chemotherapy may be of some palliative value (eg, lung, bone, heart, pericardium).
Treatment of squamous cell carcinoma of the lip is surgical excision with reconstruction to maximize postoperative function. When large areas of the lip exhibit premalignant change, the lip can be surgically shaved, or a laser can remove all affected mucosa. Thereafter, appropriate sunscreen application is recommended.
Treatment of tonsillar carcinoma usually consists of concomitant chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Another option includes radical resection of the tonsillar fossa, sometimes with partial mandibulectomy and neck dissection.
Last full review/revision July 2008 by Richard V. Smith, MD
Content last modified February 2012
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