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Carcinoid Syndrome

By

B. Mark Evers

, MD, Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky

Reviewed/Revised Apr 2022 | Modified Sep 2022
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Topic Resources

Carcinoid syndrome develops in some people with carcinoid tumors Overview of Carcinoid Tumors Carcinoid tumors develop from neuroendocrine cells in the gastrointestinal tract (90%), pancreas, pulmonary bronchi, and rarely the genitourinary tract. More than 95% of all gastrointestinal... read more and is characterized by cutaneous flushing, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea. Right-sided valvular heart disease may develop after several years. The syndrome results from vasoactive substances (including serotonin, bradykinin, histamine, prostaglandins, polypeptide hormones) secreted by the tumor, which is typically a metastatic intestinal carcinoid. Diagnosis is clinical and by demonstrating increased urinary 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid. Tumor localization may require a radionuclide scan or laparotomy. Treatment of symptoms is with the somatostatin analog, octreotide, but surgical removal is done where possible; chemotherapy may be used for malignant tumors.

Etiology of Carcinoid Syndrome

Endocrinologically active tumors of the diffuse peripheral endocrine or paracrine system (neuroendocrine tumors) produce various amines and polypeptides with corresponding symptoms and signs, including carcinoid syndrome. Carcinoid syndrome is usually due to endocrinologically active malignant tumors that develop from neuroendocrine cells (mostly in the ileum—see Small Bowel Tumors Small-Bowel Tumors Small-bowel tumors account for 1 to 5% of gastrointestinal tumors. Small-bowel cancer accounts for an estimated 12,070 cases and about 2,070 deaths in the United States annually ( 1). Diagnosis... read more ) and produce serotonin. It can, however, occur as a result of neuroendocrine tumors elsewhere in the gastrointestinal tract (particularly the appendix and rectum), pancreas, bronchi Bronchial Carcinoid Bronchial carcinoids are rare (1 to 2% of all lung cancers in adults), slow-growing, neuroendocrine tumors arising from bronchial mucosa; they affect patients in their 40s to 60s. Carcinoid... read more , or, rarely, the gonads. Rarely, certain highly malignant tumors (eg, oat cell carcinoma of the lung, pancreatic islet cell carcinoma Overview of Pancreatic Endocrine Tumors Pancreatic endocrine tumors arise from islet and gastrin-producing cells and often produce many hormones. Although these tumors develop most often in the pancreas, they may appear in other organs... read more , medullary thyroid carcinoma Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma Thyroid cancer can derive from follicular cells or parafollicular C-cells. Most thyroid cancers manifest as asymptomatic nodules. Diagnosis is often by fine-needle aspiration biopsy but may... read more ) are responsible.

An intestinal carcinoid does not usually cause carcinoid syndrome unless hepatic metastases have occurred because metabolic products released by the tumor are rapidly destroyed by blood and liver enzymes in the portal circulation (eg, serotonin by hepatic monoamine oxidase). Hepatic metastases, however, release metabolic products via the hepatic veins directly into the systemic circulation. Metabolic products released by primary pulmonary and ovarian carcinoids bypass the portal route and may similarly induce symptoms. Rare intestinal carcinoids with only intra-abdominal spread can drain directly into the systemic circulation or the lymphatics and cause symptoms.

Pathophysiology of Carcinoid Syndrome

Serotonin, the primary hormone produced by carcinoid tumors, acts on smooth muscle to cause diarrhea, colic, and malabsorption. Histamine and bradykinin, which are produced in smaller amounts, cause flushing through their vasodilator effects.

The role of prostaglandins and various polypeptide hormones, which may be produced by paracrine cells, awaits further investigation; elevated human chorionic gonadotropin and pancreatic polypeptide levels are occasionally present with carcinoids.

Symptoms and Signs of Carcinoid Syndrome

The most common (and often earliest) sign of carcinoid syndrome is

  • Uncomfortable flushing, typically of the head and neck

Flushing is often precipitated by emotional stress or the ingestion of food, hot beverages, or alcohol.

Striking skin color changes may occur, ranging from pallor or erythema to a violaceous hue.

Diagnosis of Carcinoid Syndrome

  • Test for urinary 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA)

Carcinoids are suspected based on their symptoms and signs. Diagnosis is confirmed by demonstrating increased urinary excretion of the serotonin metabolite 5-HIAA. To avoid false-positive results, clinicians do the test after the patient has abstained from serotonin-containing foods (eg, bananas, tomatoes, plums, avocados, pineapples, eggplant, walnuts) for 3 days. Certain drugs, including guaifenesin, methocarbamol, and phenothiazines, also interfere with the test and should be stopped temporarily before testing. On the 3rd day, a 24-hour urine sample is collected for assay. Normal excretion of 5-HIAA is < 10 mg/day (< 52 micromol/day); in patients with carcinoid syndrome, excretion is usually > 50 mg/day (> 260 micromol/day).

In the past, provocative tests with calcium gluconate, catecholamines, pentagastrin, or alcohol have been used to induce flushing. Although these tests may be helpful when the diagnosis is in doubt, they are rarely used and must be done with care.

Tumor localization

Localization of the tumor involves angiography, CT, or MRI. These are the same techniques used to localize a nonfunctioning carcinoid Overview of Carcinoid Tumors Carcinoid tumors develop from neuroendocrine cells in the gastrointestinal tract (90%), pancreas, pulmonary bronchi, and rarely the genitourinary tract. More than 95% of all gastrointestinal... read more . Localization may require extensive evaluation, sometimes including laparotomy. A scan with radionuclide-labeled somatostatin receptor ligand indium-111 pentetreotide, with iodine-123 metaiodobenzylguanidine, or, more recently, with gallium-68 DOTATATE may be useful in identifying metastases with a high degree of sensitivity.

Exclusion of other causes of flushing

Other conditions that manifest with flushing and that could, therefore, be confused with carcinoid syndrome should be excluded. In patients in whom 5-HIAA excretion is not increased, disorders that involve systemic activation of mastocytes (eg, systemic mastocytosis Systemic mastocytosis Mastocytosis is mast cell proliferation with infiltration of skin or other tissues and organs. Mast cell activation syndrome is increased and inappropriate activation of mast cells without clonal... read more Systemic mastocytosis with increased urinary levels of histamine metabolites and increased serum tryptase level) and idiopathic anaphylaxis Anaphylaxis Anaphylaxis is an acute, potentially life-threatening, IgE-mediated allergic reaction that occurs in previously sensitized people when they are reexposed to the sensitizing antigen. Symptoms... read more may be responsible.

Prognosis for Carcinoid Syndrome

Prognosis depends on primary site, grade, and stage. Despite metastatic disease, neuroendocrine tumors are slow growing, and survival of 10 to 15 years is not unusual.

Treatment of Carcinoid Syndrome

  • Surgical resection

  • Octreotide and other drugs for symptoms

Resection of primary gastrointestinal and lung carcinoids is often curative.

For patients with hepatic metastases, surgical debulking, while not curative, may relieve symptoms and, in certain instances, prolong survival. In addition, locoregional therapies for liver metastases could include transarterial chemoembolization (TACE), bland embolization, radioembolization with yttrium-90 microspheres, or radiofrequency ablation. Other promising treatments for metastatic or recurrent disease include everolimus, a mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitor, and newly developed peptide receptor radionuclides.

Radiation therapy is unsuccessful, in part because of the poor tolerance of normal hepatic tissue to radiation.

No effective chemotherapeutic regimen has been established. Combination treatment that includes streptozotocin, 5-fluorouracil, and cyclophosphamide is typically used only for symptomatic patients with grade 2 (intermediate grade) metastatic disease who are unresponsive to other therapies, or have high tumor proliferation rates. However, the response duration is short.

Symptom relief

Certain symptoms, including flushing, have been relieved by somatostatin analogs (which inhibit release of most hormones) without lowering urinary 5-HIAA or gastrin. Numerous studies have suggested good results with long-acting analogs of somatostatin including octreotide and lanreotide, which are the drugs of choice for controlling diarrhea and flushing.

Octreotide is begun with about 50 mcg subcutaneously twice a day, increasing if needed up to 750 mcg total daily dose. After stabilizing for at least 2 weeks on the short-acting formulation, patients may be switched to a depot formulation of octreotide 20 mg intramuscularly every 4 weeks, increasing if needed to a maximum of 30 mg. Lanreotide is a depot formulation given as 120 mg subcutaneously every 4 weeks.

Flushing also can be treated with phenothiazines (eg, prochlorperazine 5 to 10 mg orally every 6 hours or chlorpromazine 25 to 50 mg orally every 6 hours). Histamine type 2 (H2) blockers may also be used. Phentolamine (an alpha-blocker) 5 to 15 mg IV has prevented experimentally induced flushes. Corticosteroids (eg, prednisone 5 mg orally every 6 hours) may be useful for severe flushing caused by bronchial carcinoids.

Diarrhea may be controlled by

  • Codeine 15 mg orally every 4 to 6 hours

  • Tincture of opium 0.6 mL orally every 6 hours

  • Loperamide 4 mg orally as a loading dose and 2 mg after each loose bowel to a maximum of 16 mg/day

  • Diphenoxylate 5 mg orally 4 times a day

  • Peripheral serotonin antagonists (eg, cyproheptadine 4 to 8 mg orally every 6 hours)

  • Telotristat, a tryptophan hydroxylase inhibitor, 250 mg orally 3 times a day

Niacin and adequate protein intake are needed to prevent pellagra because dietary tryptophan is diverted to serotonin by the tumor. Enzyme inhibitors that prevent the conversion of 5-hydroxytryptophan to serotonin include methyldopa 250 to 500 mg orally every 6 hours.

Key Points

  • Only some carcinoid tumors secrete the substances that cause carcinoid syndrome.

  • The main causative substances are serotonin, which causes abdominal cramps and diarrhea, and histamine, which causes flushing.

  • Diagnosis is made by detection of the serotonin metabolite 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid.

  • Octreotide may help control symptoms.

  • Surgical resection may be curative in the absence of metastases.

  • Surgical debulking may help relieve symptoms and possibly prolong survival in patients with hepatic metastases.

More Information

The following is an English-language resource that may be useful. Please note that The Manual is not responsible for the content of this resource.

Drugs Mentioned In This Article

Drug Name Select Trade
Bynfezia, Mycapssa, Sandostatin, Sandostatin LAR
Novarel, Ovidrel, Pregnyl
AllFen, AllFen Jr, Altarussin , Altorant , Ambi, Amibid LA , Bidex, Chest Congestion Relief, Cough , Diabetic Tussin, Diabetic Tussin EX, Diabetic Tussin Expectorant, Diabetic Tussin Mucus Relief, Drituss G, Duratuss G, ElixSure EX, Fenesin , Ganidin NR, GERI-TUSSIN, Gua SR , Guaidrine G, Guaifenex G, Guaifenex LA, Guiatuss, Humibid, Humibid E, Humibid LA, Iophen-NR , Liquibid, Miltuss EX, Mucinex, Mucinex Children's, Mucinex Children's Chest Congestion, Mucinex Children's Mini-Melts, Mucinex Fast-Max Chest Congestion, Mucinex Junior Strength, Muco-Fen, Mucosa, Mucus + Chest Congestion, Mucus ER, Mucus Relief, Mucus Relief 12 Hour, Mucus Relief Children's, Mucus Relief ER, MucusRelief DM, Naldecon, Organ-1 NR, Organidin NR, Q-Bid LA, Q-Tussin, Respa-GF, Robafen , Robafen Congestion, Robitussin, Robitussin Mucus + Chest Congestion, Ru-Tuss, Scot-Tussin Expectorant, Siltussin DAS, Siltussin Diabetic DAS-Na , Siltussin SA, Touro EX, TUSNEL-EX, Xpect
Robaxin
No brand name available
Ablysinol, Nozin
ENDUR-ACIN, ENDUR-AMIDE, Niacor, Niaspan, NiaVasc, Nicomide-T, Slo-Niacin
Afinitor , Afinitor DISPERZ, Zortress
Adrucil, Carac, Efudex, Fluoroplex, Tolak
Cyclophosphamide, Cytoxan, Neosar
Somatuline Depot
Compazine, Compazine Rectal, Compazine Solution, Compazine Syrup, Compro
Thorazine
Regitine
Deltasone, Predone, RAYOS, Sterapred, Sterapred DS
No brand name available
Anti-Diarrheal, Imodium A-D, Imodium A-D EZ Chews , K-Pek II, Medique Diamode
Periactin
5-HTP, 5-HTP Maximum Strength
Aldomet
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