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Overview of Disorders of Calcium Concentration

By

James L. Lewis III

, MD, Brookwood Baptist Health and Saint Vincent’s Ascension Health, Birmingham

Reviewed/Revised Sep 2023
View PATIENT EDUCATION

Calcium (Ca) is required for the proper functioning of muscle contraction, nerve conduction, hormone release, and blood coagulation. In addition, proper calcium concentration is required for various other metabolic processes.

  • Dietary calcium intake

  • Absorption of calcium from the gastrointestinal (GI) tract

  • Renal calcium excretion

In a balanced diet, roughly 1000 mg of calcium is ingested each day and about 200 mg/day is secreted into the GI tract in the bile and other GI secretions. Depending on the concentration of circulating parathyroid hormone (PTH) and active vitamin D, 1,25(OH)2D (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol, calcitriol), roughly 200 to 400 mg of this calcium is absorbed from the intestine each day (see also Vitamin D Deficiency Vitamin D Deficiency and Dependency Inadequate exposure to sunlight predisposes to vitamin D deficiency. Deficiency impairs bone mineralization, causing rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults and possibly contributing... read more ). The remaining 800 to 1000 mg appears in the stool. Calcium balance is maintained through renal calcium excretion averaging 200 mg/day, which also depends on circulating PTH and calcitonin levels.

Both extracellular and intracellular calcium concentrations are tightly regulated by bidirectional calcium transport across the plasma membrane of cells and intracellular organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum, the sarcoplasmic reticulum of muscle cells, and the mitochondria.

Ionized calcium is the physiologically active form. Cytosolic ionized calcium is maintained within the micromolar range (< 1/1000 of the serum concentration). Ionized calcium acts as an intracellular 2nd messenger; it is involved in skeletal muscle contraction, excitation-contraction coupling in cardiac and smooth muscle, and activation of protein kinases and enzyme phosphorylation. Calcium is also involved in the action of other intracellular messengers, such as cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) and inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate, and thus mediates the cellular response to numerous hormones, including epinephrine, glucagon, vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone), secretin, and cholecystokinin.

Despite its important intracellular roles, about 99% of body calcium is in bone, mainly as hydroxyapatite crystals. About 1% of bone calcium is freely exchangeable with the extracellular fluid and, therefore, is available for buffering changes in calcium balance.

Normal total serum calcium concentration ranges from 8.8 to 10.4 mg/dL (2.20 to 2.60 mmol/L). About 40% of the total blood calcium is bound to plasma proteins, primarily albumin. The remaining 60% includes ionized calcium plus calcium complexed with phosphate and citrate. Total calcium (ie, protein-bound, complexed, and ionized calcium) is usually what is determined by clinical laboratory measurement.

However, ideally, ionized (or free) calcium should be estimated or measured because it is the physiologically active form of calcium in plasma and because its blood level does not always correlate with total serum calcium.

Normal ionized serum calcium concentration range varies somewhat between laboratories, but is typically 4.7 to 5.2 mg/dL (1.17 to 1.30 mmol/L).

Regulation of Calcium Metabolism

The metabolism of calcium and of phosphate (see Overview of Disorders of Phosphate Concentration Overview of Disorders of Phosphate Concentration Phosphorus is one of the most abundant elements in the human body. Most phosphorus in the body is complexed with oxygen as phosphate. About 85% of the about 500 to 700 g of phosphate in the... read more ) is intimately related. The regulation of both calcium and phosphate balance is greatly influenced by concentrations of circulating PTH, vitamin D, and, to a lesser extent, calcitonin.

Calcium and phosphate concentrations are also linked by their ability to chemically react to form calcium phosphate. The product of concentrations of calcium and phosphate (in mg/dL) is estimated to be < 60 mg2/dL2 (< 4.8 mmol2/L2) normally; when the product exceeds 70 mg2/dL2 (5.6 mmol2/L2), precipitation of calcium phosphate crystals in soft tissue is much more likely. Calcification of vascular tissue accelerates arteriosclerotic vascular disease and may occur when the calcium and phosphate product is even lower (> 55 mg2/dL2 [4.4 mmol2/L2]), especially in patients with chronic kidney disease Chronic Kidney Disease Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is long-standing, progressive deterioration of renal function. Symptoms develop slowly and in advanced stages include anorexia, nausea, vomiting, stomatitis, dysgeusia... read more Chronic Kidney Disease .

Parathyroid hormone

Parathyroid hormone is secreted by the parathyroid glands Overview of Parathyroid Function There are typically four parathyroid glands. As the name implies, they are located near the thyroid gland in the neck, although the number and particularly the location are quite variable. These... read more . It has several actions, but perhaps the most important is to defend against hypocalcemia Hypocalcemia Hypocalcemia is a total serum calcium concentration < 8.8 mg/dL (< 2.20 mmol/L) in the presence of normal plasma protein concentrations or a serum ionized calcium concentration < 4... read more . Parathyroid cells sense decreases in serum calcium and, in response, release preformed PTH into the circulation. PTH increases serum calcium within minutes by increasing renal and intestinal absorption of calcium and by rapidly mobilizing calcium and phosphate from bone (bone resorption).

Renal calcium excretion generally parallels sodium excretion and is influenced by many of the same factors that govern sodium transport in the proximal tubule. However, PTH enhances distal tubular calcium reabsorption independently of sodium.

PTH also decreases renal phosphate reabsorption and thus increases renal phosphate losses. Renal phosphate loss prevents the solubility product of calcium and phosphate from being exceeded in plasma as calcium concentrations rise in response to PTH.

PTH also increases serum calcium by stimulating conversion of vitamin D Vitamin D Deficiency and Dependency Inadequate exposure to sunlight predisposes to vitamin D deficiency. Deficiency impairs bone mineralization, causing rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults and possibly contributing... read more to its most active form, calcitriol. This form of vitamin D increases the percentage of dietary calcium absorbed by the intestine. Despite increased calcium absorption, long-term increases in PTH secretion generally result in further bone resorption by inhibiting osteoblastic function and promoting osteoclastic activity. PTH and vitamin D both function as important regulators of bone growth and bone remodeling (see also Vitamin D Deficiency and Dependency Vitamin D Deficiency and Dependency Inadequate exposure to sunlight predisposes to vitamin D deficiency. Deficiency impairs bone mineralization, causing rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults and possibly contributing... read more ).

Calcitonin

Calcitonin is secreted by the thyroid parafollicular cells (C cells). Calcitonin tends to lower serum calcium concentration by enhancing cellular uptake, renal excretion, and bone formation. The effects of calcitonin on bone metabolism are much weaker than those of either PTH or vitamin D.

Drugs Mentioned In This Article

Drug Name Select Trade
Calcidol, Calciferol, D3 Vitamin, DECARA, Deltalin, Dialyvite Vitamin D, Dialyvite Vitamin D3, Drisdol, D-Vita, Enfamil D-Vi-Sol, Ergo D, Fiber with Vitamin D3 Gummies Gluten-Free, Happy Sunshine Vitamin D3, MAXIMUM D3, PureMark Naturals Vitamin D, Replesta, Replesta Children's, Super Happy SUNSHINE Vitamin D3, Thera-D 2000, Thera-D 4000, Thera-D Rapid Repletion, THERA-D SPORT, UpSpring Baby Vitamin D, UpSpring Baby Vitamin D3, YumVs, YumVs Kids ZERO, YumVs ZERO
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NOTE: This is the Professional Version. CONSUMERS: View Consumer Version
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