Merck Manual

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Body Dysmorphic Disorder

By

Katharine Anne Phillips

, MD, Weill Cornell Medical College;


Dan J. Stein

, MD, PhD, University of Cape Town

Reviewed/Revised Jun 2023
View PATIENT EDUCATION

Body dysmorphic disorder is characterized by preoccupation with perceived defects in physical appearance that are not apparent or appear only slight to other people. The preoccupation with appearance must cause clinically significant distress or impairment in functioning. Patients also repetitively and excessively perform repetitive behaviors (eg, mirror checking) in response to the preoccupation with appearance. Diagnosis is based on history. Treatment consists of medications (specifically, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors [SSRIs] or clomipramine), psychotherapy (specifically, cognitive-behavioral therapy [CBT]), or both.

Body dysmorphic disorder usually begins during adolescence and may be somewhat more common among women. At any given point in time, about 1.7 to 2.9% of people have the disorder (1 General reference Body dysmorphic disorder is characterized by preoccupation with perceived defects in physical appearance that are not apparent or appear only slight to other people. The preoccupation with appearance... read more ).

General reference

  • 1. Hartmann AS, Buhlmann U: Prevalence and Underrecognition of Body Dysmorphic Disorder. In Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Advances in Research and Clinical Practice, edited by Phillips KA. New York, NY, Oxford University Press, 2017.

Symptoms and Signs of Body Dysmorphic Disorder

Symptoms of body dysmorphic disorder may develop gradually or abruptly. Although intensity may vary, the disorder is thought usually to be chronic unless patients are appropriately treated.

Concerns commonly involve the face or head but may involve any body part or parts and may change from one part to another over time. For example, patients may be concerned about perceived thinning hair, acne, wrinkles, scars, vascular markings, color of their complexion, or excessive facial or body hair. Or they may focus on the shape or size of the nose, eyes, ears, mouth, breasts, buttocks, legs, or other body part. Men (and rarely women) may have a form of the disorder called muscle dysmorphia, which involves preoccupation with the idea that their body is not sufficiently lean and muscular. Patients may describe the disliked body parts as looking ugly, unattractive, deformed, hideous, or monstrous.

Patients usually spend many hours a day worrying about their perceived defects and often mistakenly believe that people take special note of or mock them because of these perceived defects. Most check themselves often in mirrors, others avoid mirrors, and still others alternate between the 2 behaviors.

Other common compulsive behaviors include comparing their appearance with that of other people, excessive grooming, skin picking Excoriation (Skin-Picking) Disorder Excoriation disorder is characterized by recurrent picking of one's skin, resulting in skin lesions. Patients with excoriation disorder repeatedly pick at or scratch their skin; the picking... read more (to remove or fix perceived skin defects), hair pulling or plucking Trichotillomania Trichotillomania is characterized by recurrent pulling out of one's hair resulting in hair loss. Patients with trichotillomania repeatedly pull or pluck out their hair for noncosmetic reasons... read more Trichotillomania , reassurance seeking (about the perceived defects), and clothes changing. Most try to camouflage their perceived defects—eg, by growing a beard to hide perceived scars or by wearing a hat to cover slightly thinning hair. Many undergo dermatologic, dental, surgical, or other cosmetic treatment to correct their perceived defects, but such treatment is usually unsuccessful and may intensify their preoccupation. Men with muscle dysmorphia may use anabolic-androgenic steroids and various supplements to build muscle and/or lose fat, which can be dangerous.

Because people with body dysmorphic disorder feel self-conscious about their appearance, they may avoid going out in public. For most, social, occupational, academic, and other aspects of functioning are impaired—often substantially—because of their concerns about appearance. Some leave their homes only at night; others, not at all. Social isolation, depression, psychiatric hospitalization, and suicidal behavior are common. In very severe cases, body dysmorphic disorder is incapacitating.

The degree of insight varies, but it is usually poor or absent. That is, most patients genuinely believe that the disliked body part probably (poor insight) or definitely (absent insight or delusional beliefs) looks abnormal, ugly, or unattractive.

Signs and symptoms references

  • 1. Angelakis I, Gooding PA, Panagioti M: Suicidality in body dysmorphic disorder (BDD): A systematic review with meta-analysis. Psychol Rev 49:55-66, 2016. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2016.08.002

  • 2. Snorrason I, Beard C, Christensen K, et al: Body dysmorphic disorder and major depressive episode have comorbidity-independent associations with suicidality in an acute psychiatric setting. J Affect Disord 259:266-270, 2019. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2019.08.059

Diagnosis of Body Dysmorphic Disorder

  • Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR) criteria

Because many patients are too embarrassed and ashamed to reveal their symptoms, body dysmorphic disorder may go undiagnosed for years. It is distinguished from normal concerns about appearance because the preoccupations are time-consuming and cause significant distress, impairment in functioning, or both.

Diagnostic criteria for body dysmorphic disorder include the following:

  • Preoccupation with one or more perceived defects in appearance that are not observable or appear only slight to others

  • Performance of repetitive behaviors (eg, mirror checking, excessive grooming) in response to the appearance concerns at some point during the disorder

  • The preoccupation causes significant distress or impairs social, occupational or other areas of functioning

Treatment of Body Dysmorphic Disorder

  • Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or clomipramine plus, in some cases, an augmenting medication

  • Cognitive-behavioral therapy

SSRIs Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) Several drug classes and drugs can be used to treat depression: Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) Serotonin modulators (5-HT2 blockers) Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors... read more or clomipramine (a tricyclic antidepressant with potent serotonergic effects) are often very effective in patients with body dysmorphic disorder. An SSRI is typically preferred over clomipramine as initial pharmacologic therapy. Patients often require higher doses than are typically needed for depression and most anxiety disorders. Although data are limited, some patients who do not substantially improve with adequate trials of these medications may benefit from addition of augmenting medication such as an atypical neuroleptic (eg, aripiprazole), buspirone, or a glutamate modulator (eg, N-acetylcysteine or memantine).

Cognitive-behavioral therapy that is tailored to the specific symptoms of body dysmorphic disorder is the psychotherapy of choice. Cognitive approaches (eg, cognitive restructuring) and exposure and ritual prevention are essential elements of therapy. Clinicians encourage patients to gradually face situations they fear or avoid (which are usually social situations) while refraining from performing their rituals, such as mirror checking, excessive grooming, and comparing their appearance with that of other people.

  • Awareness training (eg, self-monitoring, identification of triggers for the behavior)

  • Stimulus control (modifying situations—eg, avoiding triggers—to reduce the likelihood of initiating the behavior)

  • Competing response training (teaching patients to substitute other behaviors, such as clenching their fist, knitting, or sitting on their hands, for the excessive behavior)

Because most patients have poor or absent insight, motivational techniques are often needed to increase their willingness to participate and stay in treatment.

Many experts believe that combining cognitive-behavioral therapy with medications is best for severe cases.

Cosmetic treatment is not recommended. It is almost always ineffective, and clinicians who provide such treatment may be at risk of legal or physical threats or behaviors by dissatisfied patients.

Key Points

  • Patients are preoccupied with 1 perceived defects in their physical appearance that are not apparent or appear only slight to other people.

  • At some point during the disorder, patients respond to their appearance concerns by performing repetitive behaviors (eg, mirror checking, excessive grooming).

  • Most patients take measures to camouflage or remove the perceived defect.

  • Patients typically have poor or absent insight.

  • Treat using cognitive-behavioral therapy that is tailored specifically to body dysmorphic disorder and/or pharmacotherapy with an SSRI or clomipramine, often at relatively high doses.

  • Cosmetic treatment, which is almost always ineffective, is to be avoided.

Drugs Mentioned In This Article

Drug Name Select Trade
Anafranil
Abilify, Abilify Asimtufii, Abilify Discmelt, Abilify Maintena, Abilify Mycite, Aristada
BuSpar, Buspar Dividose
Acetadote, CETYLEV, Mucomyst, Mucosil Acetylcysteine , NAC Vegeterian
Namenda, Namenda XR
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NOTE: This is the Professional Version. CONSUMERS: View Consumer Version
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