Successful nutrition of handreared mammals requires: 1) selecting a formula that will support adequate growth and not cause GI upset; 2) offering it at proper intervals, in proper amounts, and in the proper way to ensure acceptance and prevent overfeeding, underfeeding, or aspiration into the lungs; and 3) keeping all feeding utensils clean and disinfected. If success is judged in terms of survival and not in comparison with maternal-raised growth and health, most precocial species maintained in captive collections have been handreared successfully. Handrearing more altricial species (eg, marsupials, rodents, rabbits) is generally less successful unless the young have been dam-raised to a more advanced stage.

Whenever possible, data on milk composition and handrearing case histories should be consulted before attempting to bottle-raise a species for the first time. Extensive books with general information on hand-rearing birds and handrearing wild and domestic mammals are available. However, most milk composition data are not available for most species, and some of the published data are of dubious value. Lactose content of milk varies widely between different species (see Nutrition: Exotic and Zoo Animals: Nutrient Requirements for Handrearing Selected Zoo Mammals).

Table 2
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Nutrient Requirements for Handrearing Selected Zoo Mammals % of Dry Matter Animal Dry Matter Protein Fat Carbohydrates/Lactose Horses, rhinos 8–12 15–20 2–15 59–75 Primates 2–14 7–15 25–35 50–60 Elephants, ruminants, pigs 12–23 21–27 30–45 20–37 Rodents, carnivores, deer 18–34 28–42 32–55 5–25 Rabbits, bears 30–40 25–45 40–50 5–10 Seals 41–61 10–20 74–82 0–2 Marsupials 23–28 — — 1 Nutrient Requirements for Handrearing Selected Zoo Mammals % of Dry Matter Animal Dry Matter Protein Fat Carbohydrates/Lactose Horses, rhinos 8–12 15–20 2–15 59–75 Primates 2–14 7–15 25–35 50–60 Elephants, ruminants, pigs 12–23 21–27 30–45 20–37 Rodents, carnivores, deer 18–34 28–42 32–55 5–25 Rabbits, bears 30–40 25–45 40–50 5–10 Seals 41–61 10–20 74–82 0–2 Marsupials 23–28 — — 1

Animals (eg, pinnipeds, rabbits) that normally consume milk low in lactose generally produce little lactase and often develop severe GI problems and diarrhea when fed a high-lactose milk, eg, bovine. Similarly, adding sucrose to milk formulas is often contraindicated because many neonates produce little sucrase. Many species have been raised using diluted evaporated milk or commercial calf, lamb, foal, or doe milk replacers (eg, most ungulates), commercial dog milk replacer (eg, canids, procyonids, bears, bats, edentates, mustelids, rabbits, rodents), commercial cat milk replacer (eg, felids), human infant formulas in general (eg, most primates), and soy-based human infant formulas in particular (eg, rabbits, some marsupials). In some cases, these basic formulas can be modified to better suit the needs of a particular species by the addition of ingredients such as egg yolk, butterfat, and casein. Supplementation with vitamin and mineral products may be warranted. Some companies offer a range of products with different amounts of protein and fat, so the desired amount of protein or fat can be provided in the formula.

Some species (eg, ungulates, marsupials, mink) should receive colostrum within 12–48 hr of birth to acquire immunoglobulins necessary for survival. Including some colostrum in the diet of ungulates for up to 2–3 wk after birth may provide additional local gut protection. Colostrum from domestic cows has proved satisfactory for many exotic ruminants and can be stored frozen. Studies suggest that conspecific serum, collected aseptically, can be given PO or SC as a substitute for colostrum. Discussion is ongoing as to whether colostrum or an artificially prepared colostrum is necessary for young animals. However, when colostrum is fed, it should be from the dam or from a similar species from the same stable.

Frequency of feeding and the amount fed depends on natural nursing behavior, formula composition, and the desired rate of gain as well as practical labor restrictions. The stomach capacity of most species can be estimated at 50 mL/kg. Overfilling the stomach leads to GI upset, decreased transit time, and diarrhea. Daily intake, as a rule, should not exceed 20% body wt/day, and should be divided into frequent feedings that do not exceed 35–40 mL/kg. As a general guide, most newborns should be fed every 2–4 hr, and daily metabolizable energy intake (kcal) should be ~210 × body wt (kg)^0.75. Appetite, condition of feces, and general health should be monitored closely. Body weights should be recorded at frequent intervals. Smaller, more altricial species often must be fed by stomach tube.

Also see Management of the Neonate: Care of Orphaned Native Birds and Mammals.

Last full review/revision July 2011 by Joeke Nijboer, PhD; Teresa L. Lightfoot, DVM, DABVP (Avian)