|
Poultry convert feed into food products quickly and efficiently. Their high rate of productivity results in relatively high nutrient needs. Poultry require the presence of at least 38 nutrients in their diets in appropriate concentrations and balance. The nutrient requirement figures published in Nutrient Requirements of Poultry (National Research Council, 1994) are the most recent available and should be viewed as minimal nutrient needs for poultry. They are derived from experimentally determined levels after an extensive review of the published data. Criteria used to determine the requirement for a given nutrient include growth, feed efficiency, egg production, prevention of deficiency symptoms, and quality of poultry product. These requirements assume that the nutrients are in a highly bioavailable form, and they do not include a margin of safety. Consequently, adjustments should be made based on bioavailability of nutrients in various feedstuffs. A margin of safety should be added based on changes in rates of feed intake due to environmental temperature or dietary energy content, genetic strain, husbandry conditions (especially the level of sanitation), and the presence of stressors including diseases and mycotoxins.
Water
Water is an essential nutrient. Many factors influence water intake, including environmental temperature, relative humidity, salt and protein levels of the diet, birds' productivity (rate of growth or egg production), and the individual bird's ability to resorb water in the kidney. As a result, precise water requirements are highly variable. Water deprivation for ≥12 hr has an adverse effect on growth of young poultry and egg production of layers; water deprivation for ≥36 hr results in a marked increase in mortality of both young and mature poultry. Cool, clean water, uncontaminated by high levels of minerals or other potential toxic substances, must be available at all times.
Energy Requirements and Feed Intake
The energy requirements of poultry and the energy content of feedstuffs are expressed in kilocalories (1 kcal equals 4.1868 kilojoules). Two different measures of the bioavailable energy in feedstuffs are in use, metabolizable energy (AMEn) and the true metabolizable energy (TMEn). AMEn is the gross energy of the feed minus the gross energy of the excreta after a correction for the nitrogen retained in the body. Calculations of TMEn make an additional correction to account for endogenous losses of energy that are not directly attributable to the foodstuff and are a somewhat more useful measure. AMEn and TMEn are similar for many ingredients. However, the 2 values differ substantially for some ingredients such as feather meal, rice, wheat middlings, and corn distiller's grains with solubles.
Poultry can adjust their feed intake over a considerable range of feed energy levels in order to meet their daily energy needs. Energy needs and, consequently, feed intake also vary considerably with environmental temperature and amount of physical activity. A bird's daily need for amino acids, vitamins, and minerals are independent of these factors. The nutrient requirement values in the following tables are based on typical rates of intake of birds in a thermoneutral environment consuming a diet that contains a specific energy content (eg, 3,200 kcal/kg for broilers). If a bird consumes a diet that has a higher energy content, it will decrease its feed intake; consequently, that diet must contain a proportionally higher amount of amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. Thus, nutrient density in the ration should be adjusted to provide appropriate nutrient intake based on requirements and the actual feed intake.
Because of the ability of poultry to adjust their feed intake to accommodate a wide range of diets with differing energy content, the energy values listed in the nutrient requirement tables in this section (see Nutrition and Management: Poultry: Nutrient Requirements of Growing Pullets a through see Nutrition and Management: Poultry: Linoleic Acid, Mineral, and Vitamin Requirements of Turkeys a) should be regarded as guidelines rather than absolute requirements.
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Table 1
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Nutrient Requirements of Growing Pullets a
|
|
Age (wk)
|
0–6
|
6–12
|
12–18
|
18 to 1st Egg
|
|
White-Egg Layers
|
|
Body weight (g)
b
|
450
|
980
|
1,375
|
1,475
|
|
Protein
|
18
|
16
|
15
|
17
|
|
Arginine
|
1.0
|
0.83
|
0.67
|
0.75
|
|
Lysine
|
0.85
|
0.60
|
0.45
|
0.52
|
|
Methionine
|
0.30
|
0.25
|
0.20
|
0.22
|
|
Methionine + cystine
|
0.62
|
0.52
|
0.42
|
0.47
|
|
Threonine
|
0.68
|
0.57
|
0.37
|
0.47
|
|
Tryptophan
|
0.17
|
0.14
|
0.11
|
0.12
|
|
Calcium
|
0.90
|
0.80
|
0.80
|
2.00
|
|
Phosphorus, available
|
0.40
|
0.35
|
0.30
|
0.32
|
|
Brown-Egg Layers
|
|
Body weight (g)
b
|
500
|
1,100
|
1,500
|
1,600
|
|
Protein
|
17
|
15
|
14
|
16
|
|
Arginine
|
0.94
|
0.78
|
0.62
|
0.72
|
|
Lysine
|
0.80
|
0.56
|
0.42
|
0.49
|
|
Methionine
|
0.28
|
0.23
|
0.19
|
0.21
|
|
Methionine + cystine
|
0.59
|
0.49
|
0.39
|
0.44
|
|
Threonine
|
0.64
|
0.53
|
0.35
|
0.44
|
|
Tryptophan
|
0.16
|
0.13
|
0.10
|
0.11
|
|
Calcium
|
0.90
|
0.80
|
0.80
|
1.8
|
|
Phosphorus, available
|
0.40
|
0.35
|
0.30
|
0.35
|
|
a Requirements are listed as percentages of diet. Nutrient levels should be adjusted to meet specific strain requirements, level of feed intake, and body weight and skeletal development.
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|
b Average body weight at end of each period.
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Table 2
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Nutrient Requirements of Laying Hens at Different Feed Intakes a
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|
Pounds (approx.)/100 birds/day
|
18
|
20
|
22
|
24
|
26
|
|
Grams of feed/bird/day
|
80
|
90
|
100
|
110
|
120
|
|
White-Egg Layers
|
|
Protein
|
18.8
|
16.7
|
15.0
|
13.6
|
12.5
|
|
Arginine
|
0.88
|
0.78
|
0.70
|
0.64
|
0.58
|
|
Lysine
|
0.86
|
0.77
|
0.69
|
0.63
|
0.58
|
|
Methionine
|
0.38
|
0.33
|
0.30
|
0.27
|
0.25
|
|
Methionine + cystine
|
0.73
|
0.64
|
0.58
|
0.53
|
0.48
|
|
Threonine
|
0.59
|
0.52
|
0.47
|
0.43
|
0.39
|
|
Tryptophan
|
0.20
|
0.18
|
0.16
|
0.15
|
0.13
|
|
Calcium
|
4.12
|
3.67
|
3.30
|
3.00
|
2.75
|
|
Phosphorus, available
|
0.31
|
0.28
|
0.25
|
0.23
|
0.21
|
|
Brown-Egg Layers
|
|
Protein
|
22.5
|
20.0
|
18.0
|
16.4
|
15.0
|
|
Arginine
|
1.06
|
0.94
|
0.85
|
0.77
|
0.71
|
|
Lysine
|
1.05
|
0.93
|
0.84
|
0.76
|
0.70
|
|
Methionine
|
0.45
|
0.40
|
0.36
|
0.33
|
0.30
|
|
Methionine + cystine
|
0.89
|
0.79
|
0.71
|
0.65
|
0.59
|
|
Threonine
|
0.71
|
0.63
|
0.57
|
0.52
|
0.48
|
|
Tryptophan
|
0.24
|
0.21
|
0.19
|
0.17
|
0.16
|
|
Calcium
|
5.00
|
4.44
|
4.00
|
3.64
|
3.33
|
|
Phosphorus, available
|
0.38
|
0.33
|
0.30
|
0.27
|
0.25
|
|
a Requirements are listed as percentages of diet.
|
|
|
Table 3
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Nutrient Requirements of Broilers a
|
|
Ageb
|
0–3 wk
|
3–6 wk
|
6–8 wk
|
|
kcal AMEn/kg dietc
|
3,200
|
3,200
|
3,200
|
|
Crude proteind
|
23.00
|
20.00
|
18.00
|
|
Arginine
|
1.25
|
1.10
|
1.00
|
|
Glycine + serine
|
1.25
|
1.14
|
0.97
|
|
Histidine
|
0.35
|
0.32
|
0.27
|
|
Isoleucine
|
0.80
|
0.73
|
0.62
|
|
Leucine
|
1.20
|
1.09
|
0.93
|
|
Lysinee
|
1.10
|
1.00
|
0.85
|
|
Methionine
|
0.50
|
0.38
|
0.32
|
|
Methionine + cystine
|
0.90
|
0.72
|
0.60
|
|
Phenylalanine
|
0.72
|
0.65
|
0.56
|
|
Phenylalanine + tyrosine
|
1.34
|
1.22
|
1.04
|
|
Proline
|
0.60
|
0.55
|
0.46
|
|
Threonine
|
0.80
|
0.74
|
0.68
|
|
Tryptophan
|
0.20
|
0.18
|
0.16
|
|
Valine
|
0.90
|
0.82
|
0.70
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
a Requirements are listed as percentages of diet.
|
|
b The 0- to 3-, 3- to 6-, and 6- to 8-wk intervals for nutrient requirements are based on chronology for which research data were available; however, these nutrient requirements are often implemented at younger age intervals or on a weight-of-feed consumed basis.
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c These are typical dietary energy concentrations. Different energy values may be appropriate depending on local ingredient prices and availability.
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d Broiler chickens do not have a requirement for crude protein per se. However, there should be sufficient crude protein to ensure an adequate nitrogen supply for synthesis of nonessential amino acids. Suggested requirements for crude protein are typical of those derived with cornsoybean meal diets, and levels can be reduced when synthetic amino acids are used.
|
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e Recent research has shown that higher levels of lysine are needed for maximal growth and efficiency of modern broilers.
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|
Table 4
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Protein and Amino Acid Requirements of Turkeys a
|
|
|
Age (wk)
|
|
|
|
Male:
|
0–4
|
4–8
|
8–12
|
12–16
|
16–20
|
20–24
|
|
|
|
Female:
|
0–4
|
4–8
|
8–11
|
11–14
|
14–17
|
17–20
|
Holding
|
Breeding Hens
|
|
Energy base kcal ME/kg dietb
|
2,800
|
2,900
|
3,000
|
3,100
|
3,200
|
3,300
|
2,900
|
2,900
|
|
Protein
|
28.0
|
26
|
22
|
19
|
16.5
|
14
|
12
|
14
|
|
Arginine
|
1.6
|
1.4
|
1.1
|
0.9
|
0.75
|
0.6
|
0.5
|
0.6
|
|
Glycine + serine
|
1.0
|
0.9
|
0.8
|
0.7
|
0.6
|
0.5
|
0.4
|
0.5
|
|
Histidine
|
0.58
|
0.5
|
0.4
|
0.3
|
0.25
|
0.2
|
0.2
|
0.3
|
|
Isoleucine
|
1.1
|
1.0
|
0.8
|
0.6
|
0.5
|
0.45
|
0.4
|
0.5
|
|
Leucine
|
1.9
|
1.75
|
1.5
|
1.25
|
1.0
|
0.8
|
0.5
|
0.5
|
|
Lysine
|
1.6
|
1.5
|
1.3
|
1.0
|
0.8
|
0.65
|
0.5
|
0.6
|
|
Methionine
|
0.55
|
0.45
|
0.4
|
0.35
|
0.25
|
0.25
|
0.2
|
0.2
|
|
Methionine + cystine
|
1.05
|
0.95
|
0.8
|
0.65
|
0.55
|
0.45
|
0.4
|
0.4
|
|
Phenylalanine
|
1.0
|
0.9
|
0.8
|
0.7
|
0.6
|
0.5
|
0.4
|
0.55
|
|
Phenylalanine + tyrosine
|
1.8
|
1.6
|
1.2
|
1.0
|
0.9
|
0.9
|
0.8
|
1.0
|
|
Threonine
|
1.0
|
0.95
|
0.8
|
0.75
|
0.6
|
0.5
|
0.4
|
0.45
|
|
Tryptophan
|
0.26
|
0.24
|
0.2
|
0.18
|
0.15
|
0.13
|
0.1
|
0.13
|
|
Valine
|
1.2
|
1.1
|
0.9
|
0.8
|
0.7
|
0.6
|
0.5
|
0.58
|
|
a Requirements are listed as percentages of diet.
|
|
b These are typical ME concentrations for corn-soya diets. Different ME values may be appropriate if other ingredients predominate. Adapted, with permission, from Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 1994, National Academy of Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
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Table 5
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Nutrient Requirements of Pheasants a
|
|
Energy base
|
0–4 wk
|
4–8 wk
|
9–17 wk
|
Breeding
|
|
kcal ME/kg dietb
|
2,800
|
2,800
|
2,700
|
2,800
|
|
Protein (%)
|
28
|
24
|
18
|
15
|
|
Glycine + serine (%)
|
1.8
|
1.55
|
1
|
0.5
|
|
Lysine (%)
|
1.5
|
1.40
|
0.8
|
0.68
|
|
Methionine + cystine (%)
|
1.0
|
0.93
|
0.6
|
0.6
|
|
Linoleic acid (%)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Calcium (%)
|
1.0
|
0.85
|
0.53
|
2.5
|
|
Phosphorus, available (%)
|
0.55
|
0.5
|
0.45
|
0.40
|
|
Sodium (%)
|
0.15
|
0.15
|
0.15
|
0.15
|
|
Chlorine (%)
|
0.11
|
0.11
|
0.11
|
0.11
|
|
Iodine (mg)
|
0.3
|
0.3
|
0.3
|
0.3
|
|
Riboflavin (mg)
|
3.4
|
3.4
|
3.0
|
4.0
|
|
Pantothenic acid (mg)
|
10
|
10
|
10
|
16
|
|
Niacin (mg)
|
70
|
70
|
40
|
30
|
|
Choline (mg)
|
1,430
|
1,300
|
1,000
|
1,000
|
|
a Requirements are listed as percentages or as mg/kg of diet. For values not listed, see requirements of turkeys (see Nutrition and Management: Poultry: Protein and Amino Acid Requirements of Turkeys aand see Nutrition and Management: Poultry: Linoleic Acid, Mineral, and Vitamin Requirements of Turkeys a) as a guide.
|
|
b These are typical dietary energy concentrations. Adapted, with permission, from Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 1994, National Academy of Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
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|
|
Table 6
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Nutrient Requirements of Bobwhite Quail a
|
|
Energy base kcal ME/kg dietb
|
Starting 2,800
|
Growing 2,800
|
Breeding 2,800
|
|
Protein (%)
|
26
|
20
|
24
|
|
Glycine + serine (%)
|
—
|
—
|
—
|
|
Lysine (%)
|
—
|
—
|
—
|
|
Methionine + cystine (%)
|
1.0
|
0.75
|
0.90
|
|
Linoleic acid (%)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Calcium (%)
|
0.65
|
0.65
|
2.4
|
|
Phosphorus, available (%)
|
0.45
|
0.30
|
0.7
|
|
Sodium (%)
|
0.15
|
0.15
|
0.15
|
|
Chlorine (%)
|
0.11
|
0.11
|
0.11
|
|
Iodine (mg)
|
0.3
|
0.3
|
0.3
|
|
Riboflavin (mg)
|
3.8
|
3.0
|
4.0
|
|
Pantothenic acid (mg)
|
12
|
9
|
15
|
|
Niacin (mg)
|
30
|
30
|
20
|
|
Choline (mg)
|
1,500
|
1,500
|
1,000
|
|
a Requirements are listed as percentages or as mg/kg of diet. For values not listed, see requirements of laying hens (see Nutrition and Management: Poultry: Nutrient Requirements of Laying Hens at Different Feed Intakes a) and leghorn-type chickens (see Nutrition and Management: Poultry: Linoleic Acid, Mineral, and Vitamin Requirements of Leghorn-type Chickens a) as a guide.
|
|
b These are typical dietary energy concentrations. Adapted, with permission, from Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 1994, National Academy of Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
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|
|
Table 7
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Nutrient Requirements of Pekin Ducks a
|
|
Energy base kcal ME/kg dietb
|
Starting (0–2 wk) 2,900
|
Growing (2–7 wk) 3,000
|
Breeding 2,900
|
|
Protein (%)
|
22
|
16
|
15
|
|
Arginine (%)
|
1.1
|
1.0
|
—
|
|
Lysine (%)
|
0.9
|
0.65
|
0.6
|
|
Methionine + cystine (%)
|
0.7
|
0.55
|
0.5
|
|
Calcium (%)
|
0.65
|
0.6
|
2.75
|
|
Phosphorus, available (%)
|
0.40
|
0.30
|
0.30
|
|
Sodium (%)
|
0.15
|
0.15
|
0.15
|
|
Chlorine (%)
|
0.12
|
0.12
|
0.12
|
|
Magnesium (mg)
|
500
|
500
|
500
|
|
Manganese (mg)
|
50
|
?
|
?
|
|
Zinc (mg)
|
60
|
?
|
?
|
|
Selenium (mg)
|
0.2
|
?
|
?
|
|
Vitamin A (IU)
|
2,500
|
2,500
|
4,000
|
|
Vitamin D (IU)
|
400
|
400
|
900
|
|
Vitamin K (mg)
|
0.5
|
0.5
|
0.5
|
|
Riboflavin (mg)
|
4
|
4
|
4
|
|
Pantothenic acid (mg)
|
11
|
11
|
11
|
|
Niacin (mg)
|
55
|
55
|
55
|
|
Pyridoxine (mg)
|
2.5
|
2.5
|
3.0
|
|
a Requirements are listed as percentages or as units or mg/kg of diet. For nutrients not listed, see nutrient requirements of broilers (see Nutrition and Management: Poultry: Nutrient Requirements of Broilers a) as a guide.
|
|
b These are typical dietary energy concentrations. Adapted, with permission, from Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 1994, National Academy of Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
|
|
|
Table 8
|
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| | |
|
Nutrient Requirements of Geese a
|
|
Energy base kcal ME/kg dietb
|
Starting (0–4 wk) 2,900
|
Growing (after 4 wk) 3,000
|
Breeding 2,900
|
|
Protein (%)
|
20
|
15
|
15
|
|
Lysine (%)
|
1.0
|
0.85
|
0.6
|
|
Methionine + cystine (%)
|
0.6
|
0.5
|
0.5
|
|
Calcium (%)
|
0.65
|
0.6
|
2.25
|
|
Phosphorus, available (%)
|
0.3
|
0.3
|
0.3
|
|
Vitamin A (IU)
|
1,500
|
1,500
|
4,000
|
|
Vitamin D (IU)
|
200
|
200
|
200
|
|
Riboflavin (mg)
|
3.8
|
2.5
|
4.0
|
|
Pantothenic acid (mg)
|
15
|
10
|
10
|
|
Niacin (mg)
|
65
|
35
|
20
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a Requirements are listed as percentages or as units or mg/kg of diet. For nutrients not listed, see requirements of broilers (see Nutrition and Management: Poultry: Nutrient Requirements of Broilers a) as a guide.
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b These are typical dietary energy concentrations. Adapted, with permission, from Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 1994, National Academy of Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
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Table 9
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Linoleic Acid, Mineral, and Vitamin Requirements of Leghorn-type Chickens a
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Age
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0–6 wk
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6–18 wk
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18 wk to 1st egg
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Layers
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Breeders
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Linoleic acid (%)
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1.00
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1.00
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1.00
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1.00
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1.00
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Potassium (%)
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0.25
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0.25
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0.25
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0.15
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0.15
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Sodium (%)
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0.15
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0.15
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0.15
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0.15
|
0.15
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Chlorine (%)
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0.15
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0.15
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0.15
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0.13
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0.13
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Magnesium (mg)
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600
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500
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400
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500
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500
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Manganese (mg)
|
60
|
30
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30
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20
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20
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Zinc (mg)
|
40
|
35
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35
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35
|
45
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Iron (mg)
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80
|
60
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60
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45
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60
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Copper (mg)
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5
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4
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4
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?
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?
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Iodine (mg)
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0.35
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0.35
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0.35
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0.035
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0.01
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Selenium (mg)
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0.15
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0.1
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0.1
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0.06
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0.06
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Vitamin A (IU)
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1,500
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1,500
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1,500
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3,000
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3,000
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Vitamin D3 (IU)
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200
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200
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300
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300
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300
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Vitamin E (IU)
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10
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5
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5
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5
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10
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Vitamin K (mg)
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0.5
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0.5
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0.5
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0.5
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1.0
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Riboflavin (mg)
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3.6
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1.8
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2.2
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2.5
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3.6
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Pantothenic acid (mg)
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10
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10
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10
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2
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7
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Niacin (mg)
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27
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10
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10
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10
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10
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Vitamin B12 (mg)
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0.009
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0.003
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0.004
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0.004
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0.08
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Choline (mg)
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1,300
|
900
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500
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1,050
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1,050
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Biotin (mg)
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0.15
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0.1
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0.1
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0.1
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0.1
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Folacin (mg)
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0.55
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0.25
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0.25
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0.25
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0.35
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Thiamine (mg)
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1.0
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1.0
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0.8
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0.7
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0.7
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Pyridoxine (mg)
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3
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3
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3
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2.5
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4.5
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a Requirements are listed as percentages or as units or mg/kg of diet. Assumes an average daily intake of 110 g of feed/hen/day.
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b Adapted, with permission, from Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 1994, National Academy of Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
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Table 10
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Linoleic Acid, Mineral, and Vitamin Requirements of Turkeys a
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Age (wk)
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Male:
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0–4
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4–8
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8–12
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12–16
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16–20
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20–24
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Female:
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0–4
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4–8
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8–11
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11–14
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14–17
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17–20
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Holding
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Breeding Hens
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Energy base kcal ME/kg dietb
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2,800
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2,900
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3,000
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3,100
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3,200
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3,300
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2,900
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2,900
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Linoleic acid (%)
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1.0
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1.0
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0.8
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0.8
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0.8
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0.8
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0.8
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1.1
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Calcium (%)
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1.2
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1.0
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0.85
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0.75
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0.65
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0.55
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0.5
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2.25
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Phosphorus, available (%)
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0.6
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0.5
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0.42
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0.38
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0.32
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0.28
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0.25
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0.35
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Potassium (%)
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0.7
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0.6
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0.5
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0.5
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0.4
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0.4
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0.4
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0.6
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Sodium (%)
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0.17
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0.15
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0.12
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0.12
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0.12
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0.12
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0.12
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0.12
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Chlorine (%)
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0.15
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0.14
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0.14
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0.12
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0.12
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0.12
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0.12
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0.12
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Magnesium (mg)
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500
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500
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500
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500
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500
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500
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500
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500
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Manganese (mg)
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60
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60
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60
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60
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60
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60
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60
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60
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Zinc (mg)
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70
|
65
|
50
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40
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40
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40
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40
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65
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Iron (mg)
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80
|
60
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60
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60
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50
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50
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50
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60
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Copper (mg)
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8
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8
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6
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6
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6
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6
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6
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8
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Iodine (mg)
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0.4
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0.4
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0.4
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0.4
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0.4
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0.4
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0.4
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0.4
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Selenium (mg)
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0.2
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0.2
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0.2
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0.2
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0.2
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0.2
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0.2
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0.2
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Vitamin A (IU)
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5,000
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5,000
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5,000
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5,000
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5,000
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5,000
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5,000
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5,000
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Vitamin Dc(IU)
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1,100
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1,100
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1,100
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1,100
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1,100
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1,100
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1,100
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1,100
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Vitamin E (IU)
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12
|
12
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10
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10
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10
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10
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10
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25
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Vitamin K (mg)
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1.75
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1.5
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1.0
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0.75
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0.75
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0.5
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0.5
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1.0
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Riboflavin (mg)
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4.0
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3.6
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3.0
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3.0
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2.5
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2.5
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2.5
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4.0
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Pantothenic acid (mg)
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10
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9
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9
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9
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9
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9
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9
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16
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Niacin (mg)
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60
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60
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50
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50
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40
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40
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40
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40
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Vitamin B12 (mg)
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0.003
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0.003
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0.003
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0.003
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0.003
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0.003
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0.003
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0.003
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Choline (mg)
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1,600
|
1,400
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1,100
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1,100
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950
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800
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800
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1,000
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Biotin (mg)
|
0.2
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0.2
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0.125
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0.125
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0.100
|
0.100
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0.100
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0.2
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Folacin (mg)
|
1.0
|
1.0
|
0.8
|
0.8
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0.7
|
0.7
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0.7
|
1.0
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Thiamine (mg)
|
2
|
2
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2
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2
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2
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2
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2
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2
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Pyridoxine (mg)
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4.5
|
4.5
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3.5
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3.5
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3.0
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3.0
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3.0
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4.0
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a Requirements are listed as percentages or as units or mg/kg of diet.
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b These are typical ME concentrations for corn-soya diets. Different ME values may be appropriate if other ingredients predominate.
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c These concentrations of vitamin D are satisfactory when the dietary concentrations of calcium and available phosphorus conform with those in this table. Adapted, with permission, from Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 1994, National Academy of Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
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Appropriate body weight and fat deposition are important factors in rearing pullets for maximal egg production. Most strains of White Leghorn chickens have relatively low body weights and do not tend, under normal feeding, to become obese. Feed is normally provided for ad libitum intake to this strain of pullets. For brown-egg strains of chickens, some degree of restriction is often practiced (~90% of ad lib feeding) in order to prevent precocial onset of lay. Broiler strains tend to become obese if fed ab lib; feed restriction is necessary for broiler pullets and broiler breeders. When feed restriction is practiced, the feed levels of amino acids, vitamins, and minerals must be proportionally increased in order to prevent deficiencies.
Amino Acid Requirements
Poultry, like all animals, synthesize proteins that contain 20 L-amino acids. Birds are unable to synthesize 9 of these amino acids due to the lack of specific enzymes: arginine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenyl-alanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. Histidine, glycine, and proline can be synthesized by the bird, but the rate is usually insufficient to meet metabolic needs and a dietary source is required. These 12 amino acids are referred to as the essential amino acids. Tyrosine and cysteine can be synthesized from phenylalanine and methio-nine, respectively, and are referred to as conditionally essential because they must be in the diet if phenylalanine or methio-nine levels are inadequate. The diet must also supply sufficient amounts of nitrogen to allow the synthesis of nonessential amino acids.
Vitamins
Requirements for vitamins A, D, and E are expressed in IU. For chickens, 1 IU of vitamin A activity is equivalent to 0.3 μg of pure retinol, 0.344 μg of retinyl acetate, or 0.6 μg of β-carotene. However, young chicks use β-carotene less efficiently.
One IU of vitamin D is equal to 0.025 μg of cholecalciferol (vitamin D3). Ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) is used with an efficiency of less than 10% of vitamin D3 in poultry.
One IU of vitamin E is equivalent to 1 mg of synthetic dl-α-tocopherol acetate. Vitamin E requirements vary with type and level of fat in the diet, the levels of selenium and trace minerals, and the presence or absence of other antioxidants. When diets high in long-chain highly polyunsaturated fatty acids are fed, vitamin E levels should be increased considerably.
Choline is required as an integral part of the body phospholipid, as a part of acetylcholine, and as a source of methyl groups. Growing chickens can also use betaine as a methylating agent. Betaine is widely distributed in practical feedstuffs and can spare the requirement for chlorine but cannot completely replace it in the diet.
All of the vitamins are subject to degradation over time, and this process is accelerated by moisture, oxygen, trace minerals, heat, and light. Stabilized vitamin preparations and generous margins of safety are often applied to account for these losses. This is especially true if diets are pelleted, extruded, or stored for long periods of time.
Minerals
Much of the phosphorus in feedstuffs of plant origin is complexed by phytate and is not absorbed by poultry. Consequently, it is critical that only the available phosphorus and not the total phosphorus levels be considered. Appropriate calcium nutrition depends on both the level of calcium and its ratio to that of available phosphorus. For growing poultry, this ratio should not deviate substantially from 2:1. The calcium requirement of laying hens is very high and increases with the rate of egg production and with the age of the hen.
Other Nutrients and Additives
The chick has requirements for 38 nutrients, together with an adequate level of metabolizable energy and water. Some additional nutrients may be necessary for growth and development under certain conditions. These include vitamin C, pyrroloquinoline quinone, and several heavy metals.
Non-nutrient antioxidants, such as ethoxyquin, are usually added to poultry diets to protect vitamins and unsaturated fatty acids. Antibiotics at low levels (5–25 mg/kg of feed, depending on the antibiotic) and surfeit copper (150 ppm) are sometimes included to improve growth rate and feed efficiency. Enzymes that increase the bioavailability of dietary phosphorus, energy, and protein are often used in poultry diets when their costs are not prohibitive. In some cases, phytase enzymes are used to decrease the amount of phosphorus in the excreta in order to meet environmental regulations.
Last full review/revision March 2012 by Mahmoud El-Begearmi; Kirk C. Klasing
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