Diseases

• Kidney infection (pyelonephritis)

• Multiple myeloma

• Polycystic kidney disease

• Sarcoidosis

• Sickle cell disease

• Sjögren syndrome

• Systemic lupus erythematosus (lupus)

• Vesicoureteral reflux (backflow of urine from the bladder into the ureter, as can occur in children with urinary tract infections)

Medications

• Chemotherapy medications

• Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)

Toxins

• Aristolochic acid

• Cadmium

• Lead