Prenatal diagnostic testing involves testing the fetus before birth (prenatally) to determine whether the fetus has certain abnormalities, including certain hereditary or spontaneous genetic disorders.
Measurement of certain substances in the pregnant woman’s blood plus ultrasonography can help estimate the risk of genetic abnormalities in the fetus.
These blood tests and ultrasonography may be done as part of routine care during pregnancy.
If results of these tests suggest an increased risk, doctors may do tests to analyze the genetic material of the fetus, such as amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling.
Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling are invasive and have very low risks for the fetus.
(See also Overview of Chromosome and Gene Disorders Overview of Chromosome and Gene Disorders Chromosomes are structures within cells that contain a person's genes. A gene is a segment of deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) and contains the code for a specific protein that functions in one... read more and Overview of Birth Defects Overview of Birth Defects Birth defects, also called congenital anomalies, are physical abnormalities that occur before a baby is born. They are usually obvious within the first year of life. The cause of many birth... read more .)
Some prenatal diagnostic tests, such as ultrasonography and certain blood tests, are often part of routine prenatal care. Ultrasonography and blood tests are safe and sometimes help determine whether more invasive prenatal genetic tests (chorionic villus sampling Chorionic Villus Sampling Prenatal diagnostic testing involves testing the fetus before birth (prenatally) to determine whether the fetus has certain abnormalities, including certain hereditary or spontaneous genetic... read more , amniocentesis Amniocentesis Prenatal diagnostic testing involves testing the fetus before birth (prenatally) to determine whether the fetus has certain abnormalities, including certain hereditary or spontaneous genetic... read more , and percutaneous umbilical blood sampling Percutaneous Umbilical Blood Sampling Prenatal diagnostic testing involves testing the fetus before birth (prenatally) to determine whether the fetus has certain abnormalities, including certain hereditary or spontaneous genetic... read more ) are needed. Usually, these more invasive tests are done when couples have an increased risk of having a baby with a genetic abnormality (such as a neural tube defect Neural Tube Defects and Spina Bifida Neural tube defects are a certain type of birth defect of the brain, spine, and/or spinal cord. Neural tube defects can result in nerve damage, learning disabilities, paralysis, and death. The... read more ) or a chromosomal abnormality (particularly when the woman is 35 or older). However, many doctors offer this type of testing to all pregnant women, and any pregnant woman can request it. These tests have risks, although very small, particularly for the fetus.
Couples should discuss the risks with their health care practitioner and weigh the risks against their need to know. For example, they should think about whether not knowing the results of testing would cause anxiety and whether knowing that an abnormality was not found would be reassuring. They should think about whether they would pursue an abortion if an abnormality was found. If they would not, they should consider whether they still want to know of an abnormality before birth (for example, to prepare psychologically) or whether knowing would only cause distress. For some couples, the risks outweigh the benefits of knowing whether their baby has a chromosomal abnormality, so they choose not to be tested.
If in vitro fertilization In vitro (test tube) fertilization (IVF) 
is done, genetic disorders can sometimes be diagnosed before the fertilized egg is transferred from the culture dish to the uterus (called preimplantation genetic diagnosis Preimplantation Genetic Testing Prenatal diagnostic testing involves testing the fetus before birth (prenatally) to determine whether the fetus has certain abnormalities, including certain hereditary or spontaneous genetic... read more ).
Screening of the Pregnant Woman
Measuring levels of certain substances (called markers) in blood can help identify women with an increased risk of problems, such as having a baby with a brain or spinal cord defect (neural tube defect Neural Tube Defects and Spina Bifida Neural tube defects are a certain type of birth defect of the brain, spine, and/or spinal cord. Neural tube defects can result in nerve damage, learning disabilities, paralysis, and death. The... read more ), Down syndrome Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21) Down syndrome is a chromosome disorder caused by an extra chromosome 21 that results in intellectual disability and physical abnormalities. Down syndrome is caused by an extra chromosome 21... read more 
, other chromosomal abnormalities, or some rarer genetic disorders. These blood tests have no risks for the fetus. They can help determine the woman’s individual risk of having a baby with an abnormality more precisely and thus can help the couple better assess the benefits of having invasive prenatal genetic testing.
Doctors usually offer to do blood tests to measure markers for chromosomal abnormalities as part of routine prenatal care. However, some couples decide not to have any testing done. Other couples, such as those with a high risk of certain disorders, may skip these blood tests and proceed directly to invasive prenatal genetic testing (such as chorionic villus sampling Chorionic Villus Sampling Prenatal diagnostic testing involves testing the fetus before birth (prenatally) to determine whether the fetus has certain abnormalities, including certain hereditary or spontaneous genetic... read more or amniocentesis Amniocentesis Prenatal diagnostic testing involves testing the fetus before birth (prenatally) to determine whether the fetus has certain abnormalities, including certain hereditary or spontaneous genetic... read more ). If women decide to have chorionic villus sampling, doctors usually advise them to also have a blood test to measure the level of a marker called alpha-fetoprotein (a protein produced by the fetus). Measuring the alpha-fetoprotein level Second-Trimester Screening helps doctors determine the risk of brain or spinal cord birth defects (neural tube defects), such as spina bifida. Chorionic villus sampling does not give this information.
Markers are usually measured at 10 to 13 weeks of pregnancy (1st-trimester screening). Other markers are measured at 16 to 18 weeks of pregnancy (2nd-trimester screening).
First-Trimester Screening
Screening during the first trimester usually consists of
Blood tests to measure levels of pregnancy-associated placental protein A (produced by the placenta) and beta-human chorionic gonadotropin in the pregnant woman’s blood
Ultrasonography to measure a fluid-filled space near the back of the fetus’s neck (called fetal nuchal translucency)
The blood tests are done to estimate the risk of Down syndrome Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21) Down syndrome is a chromosome disorder caused by an extra chromosome 21 that results in intellectual disability and physical abnormalities. Down syndrome is caused by an extra chromosome 21... read more . They may be done at about 11 to 14 weeks of pregnancy.
Ultrasonography can help estimate the risk of Down syndrome and certain other chromosomal abnormalities. It can show whether the space at the back of the fetus's neck is enlarged. If it is, risk of these abnormalities is increased.
Alternatively, a blood test (called cell-free fetal nucleic acid [cfDNA] testing) may be done. For this test, small fragments of the fetus's DNA, which are present in the pregnant woman's blood in tiny amounts, are analyzed. This test can accurately determine the risk of Down syndrome and some other chromosomal abnormalities in couples with a high risk of having a fetus with a chromosomal abnormality. The test can be done as early as 10 weeks of pregnancy but can also be done later. Many doctors offer this test to all pregnant women.
First-trimester screening provides results early. If results are abnormal and the couple wishes, chorionic villus sampling Chorionic Villus Sampling Prenatal diagnostic testing involves testing the fetus before birth (prenatally) to determine whether the fetus has certain abnormalities, including certain hereditary or spontaneous genetic... read more can then be done early to determine whether Down syndrome is present. Amniocentesis Amniocentesis Prenatal diagnostic testing involves testing the fetus before birth (prenatally) to determine whether the fetus has certain abnormalities, including certain hereditary or spontaneous genetic... read more can also detect Down syndrome, but it is usually done later in pregnancy.
One advantage of 1st-trimester screening is that with earlier results, abortion Abortion Induced abortion is the intentional ending of a pregnancy by surgery or medications. A pregnancy may be ended by surgically removing the contents of the uterus or by taking certain medications... read more , if desired, can be done earlier, when it is safer.
Second-Trimester Screening
During the 2nd trimester, markers in the pregnant woman’s blood are measured and sometimes ultrasonography is done to evaluate the risk that the fetus will have certain abnormalities.
Important markers include the following:
Alpha-fetoprotein: A protein produced by the fetus
Estriol: A hormone formed from substances produced by the fetus
Human chorionic gonadotropin: A hormone produced by the placenta
Inhibin A: A hormone produced by the placenta
The alpha-fetoprotein level in blood is usually measured in all women, even those who have had 1st-trimester screening or chorionic villus sampling. A high level may indicate an increased risk of having any of the following:
A baby with a neural tube defect Neural Tube Defects and Spina Bifida Neural tube defects are a certain type of birth defect of the brain, spine, and/or spinal cord. Neural tube defects can result in nerve damage, learning disabilities, paralysis, and death. The... read more of the brain (such as anencephaly Neural Tube Defects and Spina Bifida Neural tube defects are a certain type of birth defect of the brain, spine, and/or spinal cord. Neural tube defects can result in nerve damage, learning disabilities, paralysis, and death. The... read more ) or spinal cord (such as spina bifida Spina Bifida Neural tube defects are a certain type of birth defect of the brain, spine, and/or spinal cord. Neural tube defects can result in nerve damage, learning disabilities, paralysis, and death. The... read more )
A baby with a birth defect of the abdominal wall
Later pregnancy complications, such as miscarriage Miscarriage A miscarriage is the loss of a fetus before 20 weeks of pregnancy. Miscarriages may occur because of a problem in the fetus (such as a genetic disorder or birth defect) or in the woman (such... read more , or a newborn who is small for gestational age Small-for-Gestational-Age (SGA) Newborns A newborn who weighs less than 90% of newborns of the same gestational age at birth (below the 10th percentile) is considered small for gestational age. Newborns may be small because their parents... read more (small for how long the pregnancy has lasted), or death of the fetus
Ultrasonography Ultrasonography Prenatal diagnostic testing involves testing the fetus before birth (prenatally) to determine whether the fetus has certain abnormalities, including certain hereditary or spontaneous genetic... read more is done if blood tests detect an abnormal alpha-fetoprotein level in a pregnant woman. It can help by doing the following:
Confirming the length of the pregnancy
Determining whether more than one fetus is present
Determining whether the fetus has died
Detecting many birth defects
Targeted ultrasonography using high-resolution equipment can be done at some specialized centers. It provides more detail and may be more accurate than standard ultrasonography, particularly for small birth defects. Targeted ultrasonography done during the 2nd trimester can help estimate the risk of a chromosomal abnormality. Targeted ultrasonography aims to identify certain structural birth defects that indicate an increased risk of a chromosomal abnormality. This test can also detect certain variations in organs that do not affect function but may indicate an increased risk of a chromosomal abnormality. However, normal results do not necessarily mean that there is no risk of a chromosomal abnormality.
If ultrasonography results are normal, a fetal problem is less likely, but certain conditions, such as neural tube defects, are still possible. Thus, whether ultrasonography results are normal or not, many doctors offer amniocentesis to all women.
Amniocentesis Amniocentesis Prenatal diagnostic testing involves testing the fetus before birth (prenatally) to determine whether the fetus has certain abnormalities, including certain hereditary or spontaneous genetic... read more is done if further testing is needed. It enables doctors to measure the alpha-fetoprotein level in the fluid that surrounds the fetus (amniotic fluid), to analyze the fetus’s chromosomes, and to determine whether the amniotic fluid contains an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase. Knowing what the alpha-fetoprotein level is and whether acetylcholinesterase is present helps doctors better assess risk.
A high alpha-fetoprotein level or the presence of acetylcholinesterase in the amniotic fluid suggests
A neural tube defect
An abnormality in another structure, such as the esophagus, kidneys, or abdominal wall
A high alpha-fetoprotein level plus acetylcholinesterase in the amniotic fluid indicates a high risk of
A neural tube defect, such as anencephaly Neural Tube Defects and Spina Bifida Neural tube defects are a certain type of birth defect of the brain, spine, and/or spinal cord. Neural tube defects can result in nerve damage, learning disabilities, paralysis, and death. The... read more or spina bifida Neural Tube Defects and Spina Bifida Neural tube defects are a certain type of birth defect of the brain, spine, and/or spinal cord. Neural tube defects can result in nerve damage, learning disabilities, paralysis, and death. The... read more
Sometimes the amniotic fluid sample is contaminated with blood from the fetus. This blood may increase the alpha-fetoprotein level even when the fetus does not have an abnormality, making the results hard to interpret. In such cases, the fetus may not have any abnormalities.
Screening for chromosomal abnormalities
Blood tests to measure other markers (estriol and beta-human chorionic gonadotropin) can help estimate the risk of Down syndrome Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21) Down syndrome is a chromosome disorder caused by an extra chromosome 21 that results in intellectual disability and physical abnormalities. Down syndrome is caused by an extra chromosome 21... read more and other chromosomal abnormalities. This testing may not be necessary for women who have had 1st-trimester screening. Measuring estriol and beta-human chorionic gonadotropin plus alpha-fetoprotein is called triple screening. Inhibin A may also be measured. Measuring these four markers is called quad screening.
Triple or quad screening is done around 15 to 20 weeks of pregnancy. It can help estimate the risk of Down syndrome in the fetus. Quad screening results are abnormal (positive) in almost 80% of Down syndrome cases. Triple screening detects almost as many cases. If the risk of Down syndrome is high, amniocentesis Amniocentesis Prenatal diagnostic testing involves testing the fetus before birth (prenatally) to determine whether the fetus has certain abnormalities, including certain hereditary or spontaneous genetic... read more is considered.
Cell-free fetal nucleic acid [cfDNA] testing First-Trimester Screening (a blood test) may be done instead of triple or quad testing. For this test, small fragments of the fetus's DNA in the pregnant woman's blood are analyzed.
Combined 1st- and 2nd-trimester screening
For the most accurate results, both groups of tests—1st-trimester tests and 2nd-trimester tests—are done, and results from both are analyzed together. Results are not given to the couple until 2nd-trimester results are available. However, if couples want information sooner, they can request a type of screening that provides results during the 1st trimester. Then screening in the 2nd trimester depends on the level of risk indicated by the results of 1st-trimester screening:
High risk: Invasive testing (chorionic villus sampling Chorionic Villus Sampling Prenatal diagnostic testing involves testing the fetus before birth (prenatally) to determine whether the fetus has certain abnormalities, including certain hereditary or spontaneous genetic... read more or amniocentesis Amniocentesis Prenatal diagnostic testing involves testing the fetus before birth (prenatally) to determine whether the fetus has certain abnormalities, including certain hereditary or spontaneous genetic... read more ) is offered without doing 2nd-trimester screening (blood tests to measure levels of alpha-fetoprotein, estriol, beta-human chorionic gonadotropin, and sometimes inhibin A in the mother).
Intermediate risk: Second-trimester screening is offered.
Low risk: Second-trimester screening for Down syndrome is not offered because the 1st-trimester risk is so low.
If results of 1st-trimester, 2nd-trimester, or combined screening are abnormal, amniocentesis or chorionic sampling may be offered to definitively confirm the diagnosis. Some couples may choose to have further testing with cell free DNA (cf DNA) analysis instead. However, results of cfDNA analysis are not definitive. Also, cfDNA testing may be very expensive and may delay definitive testing.
Couples should remember that screening tests are not always accurate. They may miss abnormalities, or they may indicate abnormalities when none are present.
Procedures for Prenatal Diagnosis
Several procedures can be used to detect genetic and chromosomal abnormalities in the fetus. All, except ultrasonography, are invasive (that is, they require insertion of an instrument into the body) and have a slight risk for the fetus.
Ultrasonography
Ultrasonography Ultrasonography Sometimes doctors recommend screening tests, which are tests that are done to look for disorders in people who have no symptoms. If women have symptoms related to the reproductive system (gynecologic... read more 
is commonly done during pregnancy. It has no known risks for the woman or fetus. Ultrasonography can do the following:
Confirm the length of the pregnancy
Locate the placenta
Indicate whether the fetus is alive
Determine how many fetuses are present
After the third month, detect certain obvious structural birth defects, including those of the brain, spinal cord, heart, kidneys, stomach, abdominal wall, and bones
In the 2nd trimester, detect structural defects that tend to indicate an increased risk of a chromosomal abnormality in the fetus (called targeted ultrasonography)
Ultrasonography is often used to check for abnormalities in the fetus when a pregnant woman has abnormal results on a prenatal blood test or a family history of birth defects (such as heart birth defects Overview of Heart Defects About one in 100 babies is born with a heart defect. Some are severe, but many are not. Defects may involve abnormal formation of the heart's walls or valves or of the blood vessels that enter... read more or cleft lip and palate Cleft Lip and Cleft Palate A cleft is an opening that can form in the lip (cleft lip), roof of the mouth (cleft palate), or both if the tissue does not join together completely during pregnancy. Cleft lip and cleft palate... read more 
). However, normal results do not guarantee a normal baby because no test is completely accurate. Results of ultrasonography may suggest chromosomal abnormalities in the fetus, but ultrasonography cannot identify the specific problem. In such cases, amniocentesis Amniocentesis Prenatal diagnostic testing involves testing the fetus before birth (prenatally) to determine whether the fetus has certain abnormalities, including certain hereditary or spontaneous genetic... read more may be recommended.
Ultrasonography is done before chorionic villus sampling and amniocentesis to confirm the length of the pregnancy so that these procedures can be done at the appropriate time during the pregnancy. During these procedures, ultrasonography is used to monitor the fetus and to guide placement of instruments.
At some specialized medical centers, targeted ultrasonography using high-resolution equipment can be done. For this test, experts carefully assess the fetus to check for structural defects that indicate an increased risk of a chromosomal abnormality. Targeted ultrasonography can provide greater detail than conventional ultrasonography. Thus, this test may detect smaller abnormalities, and abnormalities can be seen earlier, more accurately, or both.
Amniocentesis
One of the most common procedures for detecting abnormalities before birth is amniocentesis. It is often offered to women over 35 because they have a higher risk of having a fetus with chromosomal abnormalities than younger women. However, many doctors offer this test to all pregnant women, and any pregnant woman can request it, even if her risk is not higher than normal.
In this procedure, a sample of the fluid that surrounds the fetus (amniotic fluid) is removed and analyzed. Amniocentesis is usually done at 15 weeks of pregnancy or later. The fluid contains cells that have been shed by the fetus. These cells are grown in a laboratory so that the chromosomes in them can be analyzed. Amniocentesis enables doctors to measure the level of alpha-fetoprotein (a protein produced by the fetus) in the amniotic fluid. This measurement more reliably indicates whether the fetus has a brain or spinal cord defect than does measurement of this level in the woman’s blood.
Detecting Abnormalities Before Birth
Chorionic villus sampling and amniocentesis are used to detect abnormalities in a fetus. During both procedures, ultrasonography is used for guidance. In chorionic villus sampling, a sample of chorionic villi (part of the placenta) is removed by one of two methods. In the transcervical method, a doctor inserts a thin, flexible tube (catheter) through the vagina and cervix into the placenta. In the transabdominal method, a doctor inserts a needle through the abdominal wall into the placenta. In both methods, a sample of the placenta is suctioned out with a syringe and analyzed. In amniocentesis, a doctor inserts a needle through the abdominal wall into the amniotic fluid. A sample of fluid is withdrawn for analysis.  |
Before the procedure, ultrasonography is done to evaluate the heart of the fetus, to confirm the length of the pregnancy, to locate the placenta and amniotic fluid, and to determine how many fetuses are present.
A doctor inserts a needle through the abdominal wall into the amniotic fluid. Sometimes a local anesthetic is first used to numb the site. During the procedure, ultrasonography is done so that the fetus can be monitored and the needle can be guided into place. Fluid is withdrawn, and the needle is removed.
Occasionally, the amniotic fluid contains blood from the fetus. Such blood may increase the alpha-fetoprotein level, making the results hard to interpret.
If women have Rh-negative blood, they are given Rho(D) immune globulin after the procedure to prevent them from producing antibodies to Rh factor. When a woman with Rh-negative blood has a fetus with Rh-positive blood (called Rh incompatibility Hemolytic Disease of the Fetus and Newborn Rh incompatibility occurs when a pregnant woman has Rh-negative blood and the fetus has Rh-positive blood. Rh incompatibility can result in destruction of the fetus’s red blood cells, sometimes... read more ), she may produce these antibodies if the fetus's blood comes into contact with her blood, as it may during amniocentesis. These antibodies can cause problems in a fetus with Rh-positive blood. The injection is not needed if the father also has Rh-negative blood because in such cases, the fetus always has Rh-negative blood.
Amniocentesis rarely causes any problems for the woman or the fetus. The following may occur:
Soreness: Some women feel slightly sore for an hour or two afterward.
Spotting of blood or leakage of amniotic fluid from the vagina: About 1 to 2% of the women have these problems, but the problems do not last long and usually stop without treatment.
Miscarriage Miscarriage A miscarriage is the loss of a fetus before 20 weeks of pregnancy. Miscarriages may occur because of a problem in the fetus (such as a genetic disorder or birth defect) or in the woman (such... read more : The chance of miscarriage due to amniocentesis is about 1 in 500 to 1,000.
Needle injuries to the fetus: These injuries are very rare.
Amniocentesis can usually be done when a woman is pregnant with twins or even more fetuses.
Chorionic Villus Sampling
In chorionic villus sampling, a doctor removes a small sample of the chorionic villi, which are tiny projections that make up part of the placenta. This procedure is used to diagnose some disorders in the fetus, usually between 10 and 12 weeks of pregnancy.
Unlike amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling does not enable doctors to obtain a sample of amniotic fluid. Consequently, doctors cannot measure the alpha-fetoprotein level in amniotic fluid to check for brain and spinal cord defects (neural tube defects). Doctors may suggest that amniocentesis Amniocentesis Prenatal diagnostic testing involves testing the fetus before birth (prenatally) to determine whether the fetus has certain abnormalities, including certain hereditary or spontaneous genetic... read more or blood tests to measure alpha-fetoprotein be done later in the pregnancy to check for these defects.
The main advantage of chorionic villus sampling is that its results are available much earlier in the pregnancy than those of amniocentesis. Thus, if no abnormality is detected, the couple’s anxiety can be relieved earlier. If an abnormality is detected earlier and if the couple decides to terminate the pregnancy, simpler, safer methods can be used. Also, early detection of an abnormality may give the couple more time to prepare for the birth of a child with special medical needs.
Before chorionic villus sampling, ultrasonography is done to determine whether the fetus is alive, to confirm the length of the pregnancy, to check for obvious abnormalities, and to locate the placenta.
A sample of the chorionic villi can be removed through the cervix (transcervically) or the abdominal wall (transabdominally).
Through the cervix: The woman lies on her back with her hips and knees bent, usually supported by heel or knee stirrups, as for a pelvic examination. The doctor inserts a thin, flexible tube (catheter) through the vagina and cervix into the placenta. For most women, the procedure feels very similar to a Papanicolaou (Pap) test, but a few women find it more uncomfortable. This method cannot be used in women who have an active genital infection (such as genital herpes or gonorrhea).
Through the abdominal wall: The doctor anesthetizes an area of skin over the abdomen and inserts a needle through the abdominal wall into the placenta. Most women do not find this procedure painful. But for some women, the area over the abdomen feels slightly sore for an hour or two afterward.
For both procedures, doctors use ultrasonography to guide them as they insert the catheter or needle and suction out the tissue sample with a syringe. The sample is then sent for analysis. Many women have light spotting for a day or two after either of these procedures.
After chorionic villus sampling, women who have Rh-negative blood and who do not have antibodies to Rh factor are given an injection of Rho(D) immune globulin to prevent them from producing antibodies to Rh factor. When a woman with Rh-negative blood has a fetus with Rh-positive blood (called Rh incompatibility Hemolytic Disease of the Fetus and Newborn Rh incompatibility occurs when a pregnant woman has Rh-negative blood and the fetus has Rh-positive blood. Rh incompatibility can result in destruction of the fetus’s red blood cells, sometimes... read more ), she may produce these antibodies if the fetus's blood comes into contact with her blood, as it may during chorionic villus sampling. These antibodies can cause problems in the fetus. The injection is not needed if the father also has Rh-negative blood because in such cases, the fetus always has Rh-negative blood.
The risks of chorionic villus sampling are comparable to those of amniocentesis. The most common risk is that of miscarriage Miscarriage A miscarriage is the loss of a fetus before 20 weeks of pregnancy. Miscarriages may occur because of a problem in the fetus (such as a genetic disorder or birth defect) or in the woman (such... read more , which occurs in about 1 in 500 procedures.
Rarely, the genetic diagnosis is unclear after chorionic villus sampling, and amniocentesis may be necessary. In general, the accuracy of the two procedures is comparable.
Percutaneous Umbilical Blood Sampling
In percutaneous (through the skin) umbilical blood sampling, the doctor first anesthetizes an area of skin over the abdomen. Guided by ultrasonography, the doctor then inserts a needle through the abdominal wall and uterus into the umbilical cord. A sample of the fetus’s blood is withdrawn and analyzed, and the needle is removed. Percutaneous umbilical blood sampling is an invasive procedure. It may cause miscarriage Miscarriage A miscarriage is the loss of a fetus before 20 weeks of pregnancy. Miscarriages may occur because of a problem in the fetus (such as a genetic disorder or birth defect) or in the woman (such... read more in about 1 in 100 procedures.
In the past, percutaneous umbilical blood sampling was used when rapid chromosome analysis was needed, particularly toward the end of pregnancy when ultrasonography detected abnormalities in the fetus. However, this procedure is now rarely used for this purpose. Instead, doctors analyze the genes in amniotic fluid cells (obtained during amniocentesis Amniocentesis Prenatal diagnostic testing involves testing the fetus before birth (prenatally) to determine whether the fetus has certain abnormalities, including certain hereditary or spontaneous genetic... read more ), or they analyze part of the placenta (obtained during chorionic villus sampling Chorionic Villus Sampling Prenatal diagnostic testing involves testing the fetus before birth (prenatally) to determine whether the fetus has certain abnormalities, including certain hereditary or spontaneous genetic... read more ). These tests are less dangerous and provide results more quickly.
Currently, percutaneous umbilical blood sampling is occasionally done when doctors suspect that a fetus has anemia Overview of Anemia Anemia is a condition in which the number of red blood cells is low. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin, a protein that enables them to carry oxygen from the lungs and deliver it to all parts... read more . If the fetus has severe anemia, blood can be transfused to the fetus through the needle while it is still inserted in the umbilical cord.
Preimplantation Genetic Testing
When in vitro (test tube) fertilization In vitro (test tube) fertilization (IVF) is done, doctors can sometimes diagnose genetic disorders in the embryo before it is transferred to the woman’s uterus. Preimplantation genetic testing requires technical expertise and is expensive. These tests are used mainly for couples with a high risk of having a baby with certain genetic disorders (such as cystic fibrosis Cystic Fibrosis (CF) Cystic fibrosis is a hereditary disease that causes certain glands to produce abnormally thick secretions, resulting in tissue and organ damage, especially in the lungs and the digestive tract... read more ) or chromosomal abnormalities. However, newer techniques may reduce costs and make the tests more widely available.
Whether routine use of preimplantation genetic testing to screen embryos for chromosomal abnormalities increases the chance of successful pregnancy remains controversial.
More Information
The following English-language resource may be useful. Please note that THE MANUAL is not responsible for the content of this resource.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists: Genetic Disorders: This website provides definitions of genes and chromosomes and basic information about inheritance, risk of having a baby with a birth defect, and testing for genetic and chromosomal abnormalities.
