Risk Factors for Complications During Pregnancy

Hypertensive disorders Hypertension in Pregnancy Recommendations regarding classification, diagnosis, and management of hypertensive disorders (including preeclampsia) are available from the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists... read more are classified as (1 Hypertension references Risk factors for complications during pregnancy include Preexisting maternal disorders Physical and social characteristics (eg, age) Problems in previous pregnancies (eg, a previous history... read more )

Chronic hypertension increases risk of the following:

Before attempting to conceive, women with hypertension should be counseled about the risks of pregnancy. If they become pregnant, prenatal care should begin as early as possible. Management of chronic hypertension during pregnancy Treatment Recommendations regarding classification, diagnosis, and management of hypertensive disorders (including preeclampsia) are available from the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists... read more includes measurements of baseline renal function (eg, serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen [BUN]), funduscopic examination, and directed cardiovascular evaluation (auscultation and sometimes ECG, echocardiography, or both). Each trimester, 24-hour urine protein, serum uric acid, serum creatinine, and hematocrit are measured. Ultrasonography to monitor fetal growth is done at 28 weeks and every 4 weeks thereafter. Delayed growth is evaluated with multivessel Doppler testing by a maternal-fetal medicine specialist.

If women are at high risk of preeclampsia, clinicians should prescribe low-dose aspirin (81 mg orally once a day) to be taken daily starting at 12 to 28 weeks of gestation and taken until delivery (2 Hypertension references Risk factors for complications during pregnancy include Preexisting maternal disorders Physical and social characteristics (eg, age) Problems in previous pregnancies (eg, a previous history... read more ).

Women with a history of preeclampsia or gestational hypertension are at a higher lifetime risk of cardiovascular events and, after delivery, should be referred for appropriate cardiovascular risk assessment and follow-up.

Preexisting diabetes mellitus Diabetes Mellitus in Pregnancy Pregnancy makes glycemic control more difficult in preexisting type 1 (insulin-dependent) and type 2 (non–insulin-dependent) diabetes but does not appear to exacerbate diabetic retinopathy,... read more occurs in ≥ 6% of pregnancies, and gestational diabetes occurs in about 8.5% of pregnancies. Incidence is increasing as the incidence of obesity increases.

Preexisting insulin-dependent diabetes increases the risk of the following:

The incidence of fetal macrosomia is about 50% higher in pregnant women with preexisting diabetes than in pregnant women in the general population. The incidence of perinatal mortality is also higher.

Women with preexisting diabetes are more likely to require preterm delivery for obstetric or medical indications. Exercise during pregnancy (with judicious changes in diet) reduces the need for cesarean and operative deliveries in these women (1 Diabetes references Risk factors for complications during pregnancy include Preexisting maternal disorders Physical and social characteristics (eg, age) Problems in previous pregnancies (eg, a previous history... read more , 2 Diabetes references Risk factors for complications during pregnancy include Preexisting maternal disorders Physical and social characteristics (eg, age) Problems in previous pregnancies (eg, a previous history... read more ).

Tight glucose control before conception and during early pregnancy is essential to prevent fetal malformations.

Insulin requirements usually increase during pregnancy.

Gestational diabetes increases the risk of the following:

Gestational diabetes is routinely screened for at 24 to 28 weeks and, if women have risk factors, during the 1st trimester. Risk factors include the following:

Screening and confirmation of the diagnosis of gestational diabetes can be done in 1 or 2 steps:

The diagnosis is best based on results of an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT—see table Glucose Thresholds for Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Using a 3-hour Oral Glucose Tolerance Test Glucose Thresholds for Gestational Diabetes Using a 3-hour Oral Glucose Tolerance Test* ). The OGTT may be done in 1 or 2 steps. Based on a recommendation from the 2013 National Institutes of Health (NIH) consensus development conference, screening begins with a 1-hour 50-g glucose load test (GLT); if results are positive (plasma glucose > 130 to 140 mg/dL [7.2 to 7.8 mmol/L]), a 3-hour 100-g OGTT is done.

Optimal treatment of gestational diabetes Treatment Pregnancy makes glycemic control more difficult in preexisting type 1 (insulin-dependent) and type 2 (non–insulin-dependent) diabetes but does not appear to exacerbate diabetic retinopathy,... read more (with dietary modification, exercise, and close monitoring of blood glucose levels and insulin when necessary) reduces risk of adverse maternal, fetal, and neonatal outcomes. Women with gestational diabetes are at a higher lifetime risk of cardiovascular events and, after delivery, should be referred for appropriate cardiovascular risk assessment and follow-up.

Women with gestational diabetes mellitus may have had undiagnosed diabetes mellitus before pregnancy. Thus, they should be screened for diabetes mellitus Screening for diabetes mellitus Diabetes mellitus is impaired insulin secretion and variable degrees of peripheral insulin resistance leading to hyperglycemia. Early symptoms are related to hyperglycemia and include polydipsia... read more 6 to 12 weeks postpartum, using the same testing and criteria used for patients who are not pregnant.

(See also Sexually Transmitted Infections Overview of Sexually Transmitted Infections Sexually transmitted infection (STI) refers to infection with a pathogen that is transmitted through blood, semen, vaginal fluids, or other body fluids during oral, anal, or genital sex with... read more and Infectious Disease in Pregnancy Infectious Disease in Pregnancy Most common maternal infections (eg, UTIs, skin and respiratory tract infections) are usually not serious problems during pregnancy, although some genital infections (bacterial vaginosis and... read more .)

Screening for sexually transmitted infections should be done during pregnancy to make treatment possible and to prevent adverse effects of intrauterine or perinatal transmitted infections to the fetus or neonate.

Routine prenatal care includes screening tests for HIV infection, hepatitis B, and syphilis and, if < 25 years, for chlamydial infection and gonorrhea at the first prenatal visit. Syphilis testing is repeated during pregnancy and at delivery if risk continues (1 STIs reference Risk factors for complications during pregnancy include Preexisting maternal disorders Physical and social characteristics (eg, age) Problems in previous pregnancies (eg, a previous history... read more ). Pregnant women who have any of these infections are treated with antimicrobials.

Fetal syphilis Congenital Syphilis Congenital syphilis is a multisystem infection caused by Treponema pallidum and transmitted to the fetus via the placenta. Early signs are characteristic skin lesions, lymphadenopathy... read more in utero can cause fetal death, congenital malformations, and severe disability.

Without treatment, risk of transmission of HIV Transmission Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection results from 1 of 2 similar retroviruses (HIV-1 and HIV-2) that destroy CD4+ lymphocytes and impair cell-mediated immunity, increasing risk of certain... read more from woman to offspring is about 30% prepartum and about 25% intrapartum. Antiretroviral treatment of the pregnant woman before and during pregnancy and of the neonate within 6 to 12 hours of birth reduces risk of HIV transmission to the fetus Prevention Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is caused by the retrovirus HIV-1 (and less commonly by the related retrovirus HIV-2). Infection leads to progressive immunologic deterioration and... read more by two thirds; risk is probably lower (< 2%) with a combination of 2 or 3 antivirals. These drugs are recommended despite potential toxic effects in the fetus and woman.

During pregnancy, hepatitis, bacterial vaginosis, gonorrhea, and genital chlamydial infection increase risk of preterm labor Preterm Labor Labor (contractions resulting in cervical change) that begins before 37 weeks gestation is considered preterm. Risk factors include prelabor rupture of membranes, uterine abnormalities, infection... read more and premature rupture of the membranes Prelabor Rupture of Membranes (PROM) Prelabor rupture of membranes is leakage of amniotic fluid before onset of labor. Diagnosis is clinical. Delivery is recommended when gestational age is ≥ 34 weeks and is generally indicated... read more .

Treatment of bacterial vaginosis, gonorrhea, or chlamydial infection may prolong the interval from rupture of the membranes to delivery and may improve fetal outcome by decreasing fetal inflammation.

(See also Urinary Tract Infection in Pregnancy Urinary Tract Infection in Pregnancy Urinary tract infection (UTI) is common during pregnancy, apparently because of urinary stasis, which results from hormonal ureteral dilation, hormonal ureteral hypoperistalsis, and pressure... read more .)

During pregnancy, recurrent bacteriuria occurs more frequently, and the incidence of pyelonephritis is higher. If bacteruria is present, 20 to 35 % of pregnant women develop a urinary tract infection (UTI), and pyelonephritis is possible.

Pyelonephritis Chronic Pyelonephritis Chronic pyelonephritis is continuing pyogenic infection of the kidney that occurs almost exclusively in patients with major anatomic abnormalities. Symptoms may be absent or may include fever... read more increases risk of the following:

Pyelonephritis is the most common nonobstetric cause of hospitalization during pregnancy.

Pregnant women with pyelonephritis are hospitalized for evaluation and treatment, primarily with urine culture plus sensitivities, IV antibiotics (eg, a 3rd-generation cephalosporin with or without an aminoglycoside), antipyretics, and hydration. Oral antibiotics specific to the causative organism are begun 24 to 48 hours after fever resolves and continued to complete the whole course of antibiotic therapy, usually 7 to 10 days.

Prophylactic antibiotics (eg, nitrofurantoin, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole) with periodic urine cultures are continued for the rest of the pregnancy.

(See also Disorders Requiring Surgery During Pregnancy Disorders Requiring Surgery During Pregnancy Certain disorders treated with surgery are difficult to diagnose during pregnancy. A high level of suspicion is required; assuming that all abdominal symptoms are pregnancy-related is an error... read more .)

The most common reasons for intra-abdominal nonobstetric emergency surgery include appendicitis and biliary disorders. Prevalence is highest among women who are overweight, smoke, are older, or are multigravida and/or have had multiple gestations (1 Acute surgical problems reference Risk factors for complications during pregnancy include Preexisting maternal disorders Physical and social characteristics (eg, age) Problems in previous pregnancies (eg, a previous history... read more ).

Emergency and major surgery, particularly intra-abdominal, increases risk of the following:

However, surgery is usually tolerated well by pregnant women and the fetus when appropriate supportive care and anesthesia (maintaining blood pressure and oxygenation at normal levels) are provided, so physicians should not be reluctant to operate; delaying treatment of an abdominal emergency is far more dangerous.

After surgery, antibiotics and tocolytic drugs are given for 12 to 24 hours.

If nonemergency surgery is necessary during pregnancy, it is most safely done during the 2nd trimester.

Structural abnormalities of the uterus and cervix (eg, uterine septum, bicornuate uterus) make the following more likely:

Uterine fibroids Uterine Fibroids Uterine fibroids (leiomyomas) are benign smooth muscle tumors of the uterus. Fibroids frequently cause abnormal uterine bleeding and pelvic pressure and sometimes urinary or intestinal symptoms... read more uncommonly cause placental abnormalities (eg, placenta previa Placenta Previa Placenta previa is implantation of the placenta over or near the internal os of the cervix. It typically manifests as painless vaginal bleeding after 20 weeks gestation; the source of bleeding... read more ), preterm labor Preterm Labor Labor (contractions resulting in cervical change) that begins before 37 weeks gestation is considered preterm. Risk factors include prelabor rupture of membranes, uterine abnormalities, infection... read more , and recurrent spontaneous abortion Recurrent Pregnancy Loss Recurrent pregnancy loss is ≥ 2 to 3 spontaneous abortions. Determining the cause may require extensive evaluation of both parents. Some causes can be treated. Causes of recurrent pregnancy... read more . Fibroids may grow rapidly or degenerate during pregnancy; degeneration often causes severe pain and peritoneal signs.

Cervical insufficiency Cervical Insufficiency Cervical insufficiency (formerly called cervical incompetence) is painless cervical dilation resulting in 2nd-trimester pregnancy loss. Transvaginal cervical ultrasonography during the 2nd trimester... read more (incompetence) makes preterm delivery more likely. The risk of cervical insufficiency is higher in women who have had lacerations or injury of the cervix during a previous procedure (eg, therapeutic abortion, instrumental vaginal deliveries). Cervical insufficiency can be treated with surgical intervention (cerclage), vaginal progesterone, or sometimes a vaginal pessary.

If, before pregnancy, women have had a myomectomy in which the uterine cavity was entered, cesarean delivery is required because uterine rupture Uterine Rupture Uterine rupture is spontaneous tearing of the uterus that may result in the fetus being expelled into the peritoneal cavity. Uterine rupture is rare. It can occur during late pregnancy or active... read more is a risk during subsequent vaginal delivery.

Uterine abnormalities that lead to poor obstetric outcomes often require surgical correction, which is done after delivery.

Adolescents, who account for 13% of all pregnancies, have an increased incidence of preeclampsia Preeclampsia and Eclampsia Preeclampsia is new-onset or worsening of existing hypertension with proteinuria after 20 weeks gestation. Eclampsia is unexplained generalized seizures in patients with preeclampsia. Diagnosis... read more , preterm labor Preeclampsia and Eclampsia Preeclampsia is new-onset or worsening of existing hypertension with proteinuria after 20 weeks gestation. Eclampsia is unexplained generalized seizures in patients with preeclampsia. Diagnosis... read more , and anemia Etiology of Anemia Anemia is a decrease in the number of red blood cells (RBCs), which leads to a decrease in hematocrit and hemoglobin content. (See also Red Blood Cell Production.) The RBC mass represents the... read more , which often leads to fetal growth restriction. The cause, at least in part, is that adolescents tend to neglect prenatal care, frequently smoke, and have higher rates of sexually transmitted infections.

In women ≥ 35, the incidence of preeclampsia is increased, as is that of gestational diabetes Diabetes Mellitus in Pregnancy , dysfunctional labor Etiology , abruptio placentae Placental Abruption (Abruptio Placentae) Placental abruption (abruptio placentae) is premature separation of the placenta from the uterus, usually after 20 weeks gestation. It can be an obstetric emergency. Manifestations may include... read more , stillbirth Stillbirth Stillbirth is fetal death (fetal demise) at ≥ 20 weeks gestation (> 28 weeks in some definitions). Management is delivery and postpartum care. Maternal and fetal testing is done to determine... read more , and placenta previa Placenta Previa Placenta previa is implantation of the placenta over or near the internal os of the cervix. It typically manifests as painless vaginal bleeding after 20 weeks gestation; the source of bleeding... read more . These women are also more likely to have preexisting disorders (eg, chronic hypertension Hypertension Hypertension is sustained elevation of resting systolic blood pressure (≥ 130 mm Hg), diastolic blood pressure (≥ 80 mm Hg), or both. Hypertension with no known cause (primary; formerly, essential... read more , diabetes Diabetes Mellitus (DM) Diabetes mellitus is impaired insulin secretion and variable degrees of peripheral insulin resistance leading to hyperglycemia. Early symptoms are related to hyperglycemia and include polydipsia... read more ). Because risk of fetal chromosomal abnormalities Overview of Chromosomal Anomalies Chromosomal anomalies cause various disorders. Anomalies that affect autosomes (the 22 paired chromosomes that are alike in males and females) are more common than those that affect sex chromosomes... read more increases as maternal age increases, genetic testing Prenatal Genetic Testing of Parents Genetic testing is part of routine prenatal care and is ideally done before conception. The extent of genetic testing is related to how the woman and her partner weigh factors such as The probability... read more and detailed ultrasound screening for fetal malformations should be offered.

The most common chromosomal abnormality is autosomal trisomy. The US National Birth Defects Prevention Study (NBDPS) found that offspring of women > 40 years are at increased risk of cardiac abnormalities, esophageal atresia, hypospadias, and craniosynostosis (1 Maternal age reference Risk factors for complications during pregnancy include Preexisting maternal disorders Physical and social characteristics (eg, age) Problems in previous pregnancies (eg, a previous history... read more ).

Pregnant women whose body mass index (BMI) was < 18.5 kg/m2 before pregnancy are considered underweight, which predisposes to low birth weight (< 2.5 kg) in neonates. Such women are encouraged to gain at least 12.5 kg during pregnancy.

Pregnant women whose BMI was 25 to 29.9 kg/m2 (overweight) or ≥ 30 kg/m2 (obese) before pregnancy are at risk of maternal hypertension Hypertension in Pregnancy Recommendations regarding classification, diagnosis, and management of hypertensive disorders (including preeclampsia) are available from the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists... read more and diabetes Diabetes Mellitus in Pregnancy Pregnancy makes glycemic control more difficult in preexisting type 1 (insulin-dependent) and type 2 (non–insulin-dependent) diabetes but does not appear to exacerbate diabetic retinopathy,... read more , postterm pregnancy Postterm Pregnancy Postterm pregnancy refers to gestation that lasts ≥ 42 (> 41 6/7) weeks. Late-term pregnancy is defined as 41 0/7 to 41 6/7 weeks. Antenatal surveillance should be considered at 41 weeks. Induction... read more , pregnancy loss Spontaneous Abortion Spontaneous abortion is pregnancy loss before 20 weeks gestation. Threatened abortion is vaginal bleeding without cervical dilation before 20 weeks in a confirmed viable intrauterine pregnancy... read more , fetal macrosomia Large-for-Gestational-Age (LGA) Infant Infants whose weight is > the 90th percentile for gestational age are classified as large for gestational age. Macrosomia is birthweight > 4000 g in a term infant. The predominant cause is... read more , congenital malformations, intrauterine growth restriction Small-for-Gestational-Age (SGA) Infant Infants whose weight is < the 10th percentile for gestational age are classified as small for gestational age. Complications include perinatal asphyxia, meconium aspiration, polycythemia... read more , preeclampsia Preeclampsia and Eclampsia Preeclampsia is new-onset or worsening of existing hypertension with proteinuria after 20 weeks gestation. Eclampsia is unexplained generalized seizures in patients with preeclampsia. Diagnosis... read more , and the need for cesarean delivery Cesarean Delivery Cesarean delivery is surgical delivery by incision into the uterus. Up to 30% of deliveries in the US are cesarean. The rate of cesarean delivery fluctuates. It has recently increased, partly... read more . Ideally, weight loss should begin before pregnancy, first by trying lifestyle modifications (eg, increased physical activity, dietary changes). Women with overweight or obesity are encouraged to limit weight gain during pregnancy, ideally by modifying their lifestyle. The Institute of Medicine (IOM) uses the following guidelines:

However, not all experts agree with IOM recommendations. Many experts recommend an individualized approach that can include more limited weight gain plus lifestyle modifications (eg, increased physical activity, dietary changes), particularly for women with obesity (1 Maternal weight references Risk factors for complications during pregnancy include Preexisting maternal disorders Physical and social characteristics (eg, age) Problems in previous pregnancies (eg, a previous history... read more ). During pregnancy, most women should be encouraged to exercise at least 3 times a week for a total of 150 minutes each week (2 Maternal weight references Risk factors for complications during pregnancy include Preexisting maternal disorders Physical and social characteristics (eg, age) Problems in previous pregnancies (eg, a previous history... read more ).

For pregnant women with overweight or obesity, lifestyle modifications during pregnancy reduce the risk of gestational diabetes and preeclampsia.

Discussing appropriate weight gain, diet, and exercise at the initial visit and periodically throughout the pregnancy is important. The 2016 ACOG (American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists) obesity toolkit is a helpful resource for managing overweight and obesity.

Short (about < 152 cm) women are more likely to have a small pelvis, which can lead to dystocia Fetal Dystocia Fetal dystocia is abnormal fetal size or position resulting in difficult delivery. Diagnosis is by examination, ultrasonography, or response to augmentation of labor. Treatment is with physical... read more with fetopelvic disproportion or shoulder dystocia. For short women, preterm labor Preterm Labor Labor (contractions resulting in cervical change) that begins before 37 weeks gestation is considered preterm. Risk factors include prelabor rupture of membranes, uterine abnormalities, infection... read more and intrauterine growth restriction Small-for-Gestational-Age (SGA) Infant Infants whose weight is < the 10th percentile for gestational age are classified as small for gestational age. Complications include perinatal asphyxia, meconium aspiration, polycythemia... read more are also more likely.

Common teratogens (agents that cause fetal malformation) include infections, drugs, and physical agents. Malformations are most likely to result if exposure occurs between the 2nd and 8th week after conception (the 4th to 10th week after the last menstrual period), when organs are forming. Other adverse pregnancy outcomes are also more likely. Pregnant women exposed to teratogens are counseled about increased risks and referred for detailed ultrasound evaluation to detect malformations.

Common infections that may be teratogenic include

Commonly used drugs that may be teratogenic include

Hyperthermia or exposure to temperatures > 39° C (eg, in a sauna) during the 1st trimester has been associated with spina bifida.

Mercury in seafood can be toxic to the fetus. The FDA (see Advice about Eating Fish For Those Who Might Become or Are Pregnant or Breastfeeding and Children Ages 1–11 Years) recommends the following:

Tilefish from the Gulf of Mexico have the highest levels of mercury of all fish (as tested by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA); tilefish from the Atlantic Ocean can be safely eaten.

Experts recommend that women who are pregnant or breastfeeding eat 8 to 12 ounces (2 or 3 average meals)/week of a variety of seafood that is lower in mercury. Such seafood includes flounder, shrimp, canned light tuna, salmon, pollock, tilapia, cod, and catfish. Fish has nutrients that are important for fetal growth and development.

Stillbirth Stillbirth Stillbirth is fetal death (fetal demise) at ≥ 20 weeks gestation (> 28 weeks in some definitions). Management is delivery and postpartum care. Maternal and fetal testing is done to determine... read more is death of a fetus at ≥ 20 weeks gestation before or during delivery, as defined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC [ 1 Prior stillbirth references Risk factors for complications during pregnancy include Preexisting maternal disorders Physical and social characteristics (eg, age) Problems in previous pregnancies (eg, a previous history... read more ]), or at > 28 weeks, as defined by the World Health Organization (2 Prior stillbirth references Risk factors for complications during pregnancy include Preexisting maternal disorders Physical and social characteristics (eg, age) Problems in previous pregnancies (eg, a previous history... read more ). Fetal death during late pregnancy may have maternal, placental, or fetal anatomic or genetic causes (see table Common Causes of Stillbirth Common Causes of Stillbirth ). Having had a stillbirth or late abortion (ie, at 16 to 20 weeks) increases risk of fetal death in subsequent pregnancies. Degree of risk varies depending on the cause of a previous stillbirth. Fetal surveillance using antepartum testing (eg, nonstress testing, biophysical profile) is recommended.

Treatment of maternal disorders (eg, chronic hypertension, diabetes, infections) may lower risk of stillbirth in a current pregnancy.

Preterm delivery Preterm Labor Labor (contractions resulting in cervical change) that begins before 37 weeks gestation is considered preterm. Risk factors include prelabor rupture of membranes, uterine abnormalities, infection... read more is delivery before 37 weeks. Previous preterm delivery due to preterm labor increases risk of future preterm deliveries; if the previous preterm neonate weighed < 1.5 kg, risk of preterm delivery in the next pregnancy is 50%.

Women with prior preterm delivery due to preterm labor should be closely monitored at 2-week intervals after 20 weeks. Monitoring includes

Women with a prior preterm birth due to preterm labor or with shortening (≤ 25 mm) of the cervix should be given intramuscular 17 alpha-hydroxyprogesterone.

Risk of having a fetus with a chromosomal disorder Risk Factors for Genetic Disorders or Congenital Anomalies Prenatal genetic counseling is provided for all prospective parents, ideally before conception, to assess risk factors for congenital disorders. Precautions to help prevent birth defects (eg... read more is increased for most couples who have had a fetus or neonate with a chromosomal disorder (recognized or missed). Recurrence risk for most genetic disorders is unknown. Most congenital malformations are multifactorial; risk of having a subsequent fetus with malformations is ≤ 1%.

If couples have had a neonate with a genetic or chromosomal disorder, genetic screening Prenatal Genetic Testing of Parents Genetic testing is part of routine prenatal care and is ideally done before conception. The extent of genetic testing is related to how the woman and her partner weigh factors such as The probability... read more is recommended. If couples have had a neonate with a congenital malformation, genetic screening, high-resolution ultrasonography, and evaluation by a maternal-fetal medicine specialist is recommended.

Polyhydramnios Polyhydramnios Polyhydramnios is excessive amniotic fluid; it is associated with maternal and fetal complications. Diagnosis is by ultrasonographic measurement of amniotic fluid volume. Management is by treating... read more (excess amniotic fluid) can lead to severe maternal shortness of breath and preterm labor. Risk factors include

Oligohydramnios Oligohydramnios Oligohydramnios is amniotic fluid volume that is less than expected for gestational age; it is associated with maternal and fetal complications. Diagnosis is by ultrasonographic measurement... read more (deficient amniotic fluid) often accompanies congenital malformations of the fetal urinary tract and severe fetal growth restriction (< 3rd percentile). Also, Potter syndrome with pulmonary hypoplasia or fetal surface compression abnormalities may result, usually in the 2nd trimester, and cause fetal death.

Polyhydramnios or oligohydramnios is suspected if uterine size does not correspond to gestational date or may be discovered incidentally via ultrasonography, which is diagnostic.

In symptomatic patients (shortness of breath and/or abdominal discomfort), amniocentesis to remove excess amniotic fluid (amnioreduction) should be considered. Rarely, when maternal symptoms are severe, corticosteroids and preterm delivery should be considered. Amnioreduction relieves maternal symptoms, but amniotic fluid may reaccumulate rapidly and require repeat procedures. In patients with mild to moderate polyhydramnios, elective delivery at 39 weeks (or earlier, as indicated by symptoms) may be advisable; in making this decision, clinicians should also consider degree of cervical dilation and risk of premature rupture of membranes and umbilical cord prolapse.

Multifetal pregnancy Multifetal Pregnancy Multifetal pregnancy is presence of > 1 fetus in the uterus. Multifetal (multiple) pregnancy occurs in up to 1 of 30 deliveries. Risk factors for multiple pregnancy include Ovarian stimulation... read more increases risk of the following:

Multifetal pregnancy is detected during routine ultrasonography at 16 to 20 weeks. Incidence of multifetal pregnancies has been increasing; use of assisted reproductive techniques Assisted Reproductive Techniques Assisted reproductive techniques (ARTs) involve manipulation of sperm and ova or embryos in vitro with the goal of producing a pregnancy. For assisted reproductive techniques, oocytes and sperm... read more have contributed substantially to this increase (1 Multifetal pregnancy reference Risk factors for complications during pregnancy include Preexisting maternal disorders Physical and social characteristics (eg, age) Problems in previous pregnancies (eg, a previous history... read more ).

Most cerebral palsy Cerebral Palsy (CP) Cerebral palsy refers to a group of nonprogressive conditions characterized by impaired voluntary movement or posture and resulting from prenatal developmental malformations or perinatal or... read more and neurodevelopmental disorders are caused by factors unrelated to a birth injury. Injuries such as brachial plexus damage can result from procedures such as forceps or vacuum extractor delivery but often result from intrauterine forces during labor or malposition during the last weeks of pregnancy.

Previous shoulder dystocia Shoulder dystocia Fetal dystocia is abnormal fetal size or position resulting in difficult delivery. Diagnosis is by examination, ultrasonography, or response to augmentation of labor. Treatment is with physical... read more is a risk factor for future dystocia, and the delivery records should be reviewed for potentially modifiable risk factors (eg, fetal macrosomia, operative vaginal delivery) that may have predisposed to the injury.