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Nephrology
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Approach to the Patient with Renal Issues
Evaluation of the Patient With Renal Issues
History
Physical Examination
Chest examination
Abdominal examination
Skin examination
Neurologic examination
Testing
Urinalysis
Microscopic urine analysis
Other urine tests
Blood tests
Renal biopsy
Testing references
Evaluating Kidney Function
Estimating GFR
Measuring creatinine clearance
Evaluation of kidney function reference
Symptoms of Nephrologic Disorders
Hematuria
Pathophysiology
Etiology
Evaluation
History
Physical examination
Red flags
Interpretation of findings
Testing
Evaluation reference
Treatment
Key Points
Polyuria
Pathophysiology
Etiology
Evaluation
History
Physical examination
Red flags
Interpretation of findings
Testing
Treatment
Key Points
Proteinuria
Pathophysiology
Consequences
Etiology
Evaluation
History and physical examination
Testing
Evaluation reference
Treatment
Glomerular Disorders
Overview of Glomerular Disorders
Diagnosis
Overview of Nephritic Syndrome
Acute glomerulonephritis
Chronic glomerulonephritis
Overview of Nephrotic Syndrome
Etiology
Etiology references
Pathophysiology
Complications of nephrotic syndrome
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Urine testing
Adjunctive testing in nephrotic syndrome
Testing for secondary causes of nephrotic syndrome
Treatment
Treatment of disorder causing nephrotic syndrome
Proteinuria treatment
Edema treatment
Dyslipidemia treatment
Hypercoagulability treatment
Management of infection risk
Nephrectomy for nephrotic syndrome
Treatment references
Prognosis
Key Points
Alport Syndrome
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment references
Key Points
Immunoglobulin A Nephropathy
General references
Symptoms and Signs
Symptoms and signs reference
Diagnosis
Diagnosis reference
Treatment
Angiotensin inhibition in IgA nephropathy
Dual endothelin receptor antagonists
Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors
Corticosteroids and immunosuppressants in IgA nephropathy
Other treatments
Treatment references
Prognosis
Prognosis reference
Key Points
Postinfectious Glomerulonephritis (PIGN)
Etiology
Etiology reference
Symptoms and Signs
Symptoms and signs reference
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prognosis reference
Key Points
Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis (RPGN)
Antiglomerular basement membrane antibody disease
Immune complex RPGN
Pauci-immune RPGN
Double-antibody positive disease
Idiopathic RPGN
General references
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment references
Prognosis
Prognosis references
Key Points
Thin Basement Membrane Disease
Reference
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Congenital Nephrotic Syndromes
Diffuse mesangial sclerosis
Finnish-type nephrotic syndrome
Other congenital nephrotic syndromes
References
Diabetic Nephropathy
General references
Pathophysiology
Pathophysiology reference
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Urinary protein
Screening
Diagnosis references
Treatment
Blood glucose control
Blood pressure control
Dyslipidemia
Other treatments
Kidney transplantation
Treatment references
Prognosis
Key Points
More Information
Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis
General references
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Immunosuppressive therapy
Treatment references
Prognosis
Prognosis references
Key Points
HIV-Associated Nephropathy
General reference
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment reference
Membranous Nephropathy
General reference
Etiology
Etiology reference
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Diagnosis of cause
Diagnosis references
Treatment
Immunosuppressive therapy
Treatment references
Prognosis
Prognosis reference
Key Points
Minimal Change Disease
General reference
Symptoms and Signs
Symptoms and signs references
Diagnosis
Treatment
Corticosteroids
Other immunosuppressive therapies
Management of edema
Treatment references
Prognosis
Prognosis reference
Key Points
Fibrillary and Immunotactoid Glomerulopathies
General reference
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment references
Prognosis
Prognosis references
Membranoproliferative Glomerulonephritis
Immunoglobulin/immune complex–mediated MPGN
Complement-mediated MPGN
Membranoproliferative pattern MPGN without immunoglobulin or complement deposition
General references
Symptoms and Signs
Symptoms and signs reference
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment reference
Prognosis
Prognosis reference
Key Points
Lupus Nephritis
General references
Pathophysiology
Antiphospholipid syndrome nephropathy
Pathophysiology reference
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Diagnosis reference
Treatment
Immunosuppression
Other treatments
Treatment references
Prognosis
Prognosis reference
Key Points
Renal Replacement Therapy
Overview of Renal Replacement Therapy
Hemodialysis
Settings for hemodialysis
Vascular access for dialysis
Vascular access complications
General references
Complications of Hemodialysis
Complications reference
Prognosis
Prognosis reference
Continuous Hemofiltration and Hemodialysis
General reference
Peritoneal Dialysis
Access
General reference
Complications of Peritoneal Dialysis
Peritonitis
Catheter tunnel exit-site infection
Complications references
Prognosis
Prognosis reference
Medical Aspects of Long-Term Renal Replacement Therapy
Diet
Anemia of renal failure
Coronary artery disease
Hyperphosphatemia
Hypocalcemia and secondary hyperparathyroidism
Aluminum toxicity
Bone disease
Vitamin deficiencies
Calciphylaxis
Constipation
References
Acute Kidney Injury
Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)
General references
Etiology
Etiology references
Symptoms and Signs
Changes in urine output
Symptoms and signs references
Diagnosis
Determination of cause
Imaging
Staging of AKI
Diagnosis references
Treatment
Emergency treatment
General measures
Treatment references
Prognosis
Prognosis references
Prevention
Prevention reference
Key Points
Rhabdomyolysis
Pathophysiology
Pathophysiology reference
Etiology
Etiology reference
Symptoms and Signs
Symptoms and signs references
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment reference
Key Points
Chronic Kidney Disease
Chronic Kidney Disease
General reference
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Creatinine and urea
Sodium and water
Potassium
Calcium and phosphate
pH and bicarbonate
Anemia
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Stages of chronic kidney disease
Diagnosis reference
Treatment
Nutrition
Mineral and bone disorders
Fluid and electrolytes
Anemia and coagulation disorders
Heart failure
Medications
Dialysis
Transplantation
Treatment references
Prognosis
Key Points
Cystic Kidney Disease
Overview of Cystic Kidney Disease
Acquired Renal Cysts
Solitary renal cysts
Multiple renal cysts
Congenital Renal Cystic Dysplasia
Reference
Medullary Sponge Kidney
References
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment reference
Nephronophthisis and Autosomal Dominant Tubulointerstitial Kidney Disease (ADTKD)
Nephronophthisis
Nephronophthisis reference
Diagnosis
Treatment
Autosomal dominant tubulointerstitial kidney disease (ADTKD)
References
Key Points
Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease (ADPKD)
Etiology
Etiology references
Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Symptoms and signs reference
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment references
Prognosis
Prognosis references
Key Points
Renal Transport Abnormalities
Introduction to Renal Transport Abnormalities
Fanconi Syndrome
Etiology
Hereditary Fanconi syndrome
Acquired Fanconi syndrome
Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment references
Key Points
Liddle Syndrome
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Arginine
Vasopressin
Resistance
General reference
Etiology
Inherited AVP-R
Acquired AVP-R
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Water deprivation test
Treatment
Prognosis
Key Points
Renal Glucosuria
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Renal Tubular Acidosis
Type 1 (distal) RTA
Type 2 (proximal) RTA
Type 4 (generalized) RTA
Symptoms and Signs
Symptoms and signs reference
Diagnosis
Treatment
Type 1 RTA
Type 2 RTA
Type 4 RTA
Key Points
Pseudohypoaldosteronism Type I
Autosomal recessive pseudohypoaldosteronism type I
Autosomal dominant pseudohypoaldosteronism type 1
Pseudohypoaldosteronism type II
Diagnosis
Treatment
Renovascular Disorders
Hypertensive Arteriolar Nephrosclerosis
General references
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment references
Prognosis
Key Points
Renal Artery Stenosis and Occlusion
Etiology
Acute renal artery occlusion
Chronic progressive renal artery stenosis
Etiology reference
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Acute renal artery occlusion
Chronic progressive renal artery stenosis
Renovascular hypertension
Treatment references
Key Points
Renal Atheroembolism
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Diagnosis reference
Treatment
Prognosis
Prognosis reference
Key Points
Renal Cortical Necrosis
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prognosis reference
Key Points
Renal Vein Thrombosis
Etiology
Etiology references
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Key Points
Tubulointerstitial Diseases
Overview of Tubulointerstitial Diseases
Pathophysiology
Acute Tubular Necrosis (ATN)
Etiology
Etiology references
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prognosis reference
Prevention
Key Points
Tubulointerstitial Nephritis
Etiology
Acute tubulointerstitial nephritis
Chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis
General references
Symptoms and Signs
Acute tubulointerstitial nephritis
Chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis
Diagnosis
Acute tubulointerstitial nephritis
Chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis
Treatment
Prognosis
Acute tubulointerstitial nephritis
Chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis
Key Points
Contrast Nephropathy
Risk factors for contrast nephropathy
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Key Points
Analgesic Nephropathy
References
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Diagnosis reference
Treatment
Metabolic Nephropathies
Acute urate nephropathy
Chronic urate nephropathy
Hyperoxaluria
Hypercalcemia
Chronic hypokalemia
Heavy Metal Nephropathy
Lead nephropathy
Cadmium nephropathy
Other heavy metal nephropathies
Vesicoureteral Reflux and Reflux Nephropathy
Reference
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prenatal diagnosis
Postnatal diagnosis
Diagnosis references
Treatment
Key Points
Myeloma-Related Kidney Disease
Tubulointerstitial disease
Glomerulopathies
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment reference
Prognosis
Key Points
Acid-Base Regulation and Disorders
Lactic Acidosis
Type A lactic acidosis
Type B lactic acidosis
D-Lactic acidosis
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
Acid-Base Regulation
Acid-Base Physiology
Acid-Base Balance
Chemical buffering
Pulmonary pH regulation
Renal pH regulation
Acid-Base Disorders
Classification
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Calculation of the anion gap
Key Points
Metabolic Acidosis
Etiology
High anion gap acidosis
Normal anion gap acidosis
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
Metabolic Alkalosis
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
Respiratory Acidosis
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
Respiratory Alkalosis
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Pseudorespiratory alkalosis
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
Electrolyte Disorders
Hyponatremia
Etiology
Hypovolemic hyponatremia
Euvolemic hyponatremia
Hypervolemic hyponatremia
Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH)
Hyponatremia in severe HIV infection
Cerebral salt wasting (CSW)
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Exclusion of translocational hyponatremia and pseudohyponatremia
Identification of the cause
Treatment
Mild to moderate hyponatremia
Severe hyponatremia
Rapid-onset hyponatremia
Hypertonic saline solution
Selective vasopressin receptor antagonists
Chronic hyponatremia
Osmotic demyelination syndrome
Key Points
Hypernatremia
Etiology
Hypovolemic hypernatremia
Euvolemic hypernatremia
Hypervolemic hypernatremia
Hypernatremia in older adults
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
Overview of Disorders of Potassium Concentration
Potassium shifts
Potassium metabolism
Pseudohypokalemia and pseudohyperkalemia
Overview of Disorders of Calcium Concentration
Regulation of Calcium Metabolism
Parathyroid hormone
Calcitonin
Overview of Disorders of Phosphate Concentration
Overview of Disorders of Magnesium Concentration
Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH Secretion (SIADH)
Pathophysiology
Etiology
Medications and SIADH
Etiology reference
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment reference
Key Points
Hypokalemia
Etiology
Gastrointestinal tract losses
Intracellular shift
Renal potassium losses
Medications
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
ECG
Diagnosis of cause
Treatment
Prevention
Key Points
Hyperkalemia
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
ECG
Diagnosis of cause
Treatment
Mild hyperkalemia
Moderate to severe hyperkalemia
Key Points
Hypocalcemia
Etiology
Hypoparathyroidism
Pseudohypoparathyroidism
Vitamin D deficiency and dependency
Renal disease
Other causes
Symptoms and Signs
Neurologic manifestations
Other manifestations
Diagnosis
Estimation of ionized calcium concentration
Treatment
Tetany
Transient hypoparathyroidism
Chronic hypocalcemia
Key Points
Hypercalcemia
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Primary hyperparathyroidism
Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia
Secondary hyperparathyroidism
Tertiary hyperparathyroidism
Cancer
Vitamin D toxicity
Granulomatous disorders
Immobilization
Idiopathic infantile hypercalcemia
Milk-alkali syndrome
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Initial evaluation
Hyperparathyroidism
Cancer
Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia (FHH)
Milk-alkali syndrome
Other causes
Treatment
Mild hypercalcemia
Moderate hypercalcemia
Severe hypercalcemia
Hypercalcemia of malignancy
Hyperparathyroidism
Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia
Treatment reference
Key Points
Hypophosphatemia
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Oral treatment
Parenteral treatment
Key Points
Hyperphosphatemia
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
Hypomagnesemia
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
Hypermagnesemia
Diagnosis
Treatment
Fluid Metabolism
Volume Depletion
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment references
Volume Overload
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Water and Sodium Balance
Osmotic forces
Water intake and excretion
Overview of Disorders of Fluid Volume
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone axis
Other natriuretic factors
Sodium depletion and excess
