Amyloid fibrils are made of normally soluble misfolded proteins that aggregate into oligomers and then insoluble fibrils. A number of normal (wild-type) and mutant proteins are susceptible to such misfolding and aggregation (amyloidogenic proteins), thus accounting for the wide variety of causes and types of amyloidosis.
Amyloid deposits are composed of small (about 10 nm diameter), insoluble fibrils that form congophilic beta-pleated sheets that can be identified by x-ray diffraction. In addition to the fibrillar amyloid protein, the deposits also contain serum amyloid P component and glycosaminoglycans.
Amyloid deposits stain pink with hematoxylin and eosin, contain carbohydrate constituents that stain with periodic acid-Schiff dye or with Alcian blue, but most characteristically have apple-green birefringence under polarized light microscopy after Congo red staining. On autopsy inspection, affected organs may appear waxy.
For amyloidosis to develop, in addition to production of amyloidogenic proteins, there is probably also a failure of the normal clearance mechanisms for such misfolded proteins. The amyloid deposits themselves are metabolically inert but interfere physically with organ structure and function. However, some prefibrillar oligomers of amyloidogenic proteins have direct cellular toxicity, an important component of disease pathogenesis.
Etiology of Amyloidosis
In systemic amyloidosis, circulating amyloidogenic proteins form deposits in a variety of organs. Major systemic types include
AL (primary amyloidosis) AL amyloidosis (primary amyloidosis) Amyloidosis is any of a group of disparate conditions characterized by extracellular deposition of insoluble fibrils composed of misaggregated proteins. These proteins may accumulate locally... read more
: Caused by acquired overexpression of clonal immunoglobulin light chains
AF (familial amyloidosis) AF amyloidosis (familial amyloidosis) Amyloidosis is any of a group of disparate conditions characterized by extracellular deposition of insoluble fibrils composed of misaggregated proteins. These proteins may accumulate locally... read more
: Caused by inheritance of a mutant gene encoding a protein prone to misfolding, most commonly transthyretin (TTR)
ATTRwt (wild-type ATTR ATTRwt amyloidosis (senile systemic amyloidosis) Amyloidosis is any of a group of disparate conditions characterized by extracellular deposition of insoluble fibrils composed of misaggregated proteins. These proteins may accumulate locally... read more
; previously termed senile systemic amyloidosis or SSA): Caused by misfolding and aggregation of wild-type TTR
AA (secondary amyloidosis) AA amyloidosis (secondary amyloidosis) Amyloidosis is any of a group of disparate conditions characterized by extracellular deposition of insoluble fibrils composed of misaggregated proteins. These proteins may accumulate locally... read more
: Caused by aggregation of an acute phase reactant, serum amyloid A
Amyloidosis caused by aggregation of beta-2-microglobulin can occur in patients on long-term hemodialysis, but the incidence has declined with use of modern high-flow dialysis membranes. There is a rare hereditary form of beta-2-microglobulin amyloidosis due to a mutation to the relevant gene.
Localized forms of amyloidosis appear to be caused by local production and deposition of an amyloidogenic protein (most often immunoglobulin light chains) within the affected organ rather than by deposition of circulating proteins. Frequently involved sites include the central nervous system (eg, in Alzheimer disease Alzheimer Disease Alzheimer disease causes progressive cognitive deterioration and is characterized by beta-amyloid deposits and neurofibrillary tangles in the cerebral cortex and subcortical gray matter. Diagnosis... read more ), skin, upper or lower airways, lung parenchyma, bladder, eyes, and breasts.
AL amyloidosis (primary amyloidosis)
AL is caused by overproduction of an amyloidogenic immunoglobulin light chain in patients with a monoclonal plasma cell or other B cell lymphoproliferative disorder. Light chains can also form nonfibrillar tissue deposits (ie, light chain deposition disease). Rarely, immunoglobulin heavy chains form amyloid fibrils (called AH amyloidosis).
Common sites for amyloid deposition include the skin, nerves, heart, gastrointestinal tract (including the tongue), kidneys, liver, spleen, and blood vessels. Usually, a low-grade plasmacytosis is present in the bone marrow, which is similar to that in multiple myeloma Multiple Myeloma Multiple myeloma is a cancer of plasma cells that produce monoclonal immunoglobulin and invade and destroy adjacent bone tissue. Common manifestations include lytic lesions in bones that cause... read more , although most patients do not have true multiple myeloma (with lytic bone lesions, hypercalcemia, renal tubular casts, and anemia). However, about 10 to 20% of patients with multiple myeloma develop AL amyloidosis.
AF amyloidosis (familial amyloidosis)
AF is caused by inheritance of a gene encoding a mutated aggregation-prone serum protein, usually a protein abundantly produced by the liver.
Serum proteins that can cause AF include transthyretin (TTR), apolipoprotein A-I, apolipoprotein A-II, lysozyme, fibrinogen, gelsolin, and cystatin C. A form that is speculated to be familial is caused by the serum protein leukocyte chemotactic factor 2 (LECT2); however, a specific inherited gene mutation for this latter type has not been clearly demonstrated.
Amyloidosis caused by TTR (ATTR) is the most common type of AF. More than 130 mutations of the TTR gene have been associated with amyloidosis. The most prevalent mutation, V30M, is common in Portugal, Sweden, Brazil, and Japan, and a V122I mutation is present in about 4% of American and Caribbean Black people. Disease penetrance and age of onset are highly variable but are consistent within families and ethnic groups (1 Etiology references Amyloidosis is any of a group of disparate conditions characterized by extracellular deposition of insoluble fibrils composed of misaggregated proteins. These proteins may accumulate locally... read more ).
ATTR causes peripheral sensorimotor neuropathy and autonomic neuropathy Autonomic Neuropathies Autonomic neuropathies are peripheral nerve disorders with disproportionate involvement of autonomic fibers. (See also Overview of the Autonomic Nervous System.) The best known autonomic neuropathies... read more , chronic kidney disease Chronic Kidney Disease Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is long-standing, progressive deterioration of renal function. Symptoms develop slowly and in advanced stages include anorexia, nausea, vomiting, stomatitis, dysgeusia... read more , and cardiomyopathy Overview of Cardiomyopathies A cardiomyopathy is a primary disorder of the heart muscle. It is distinct from structural cardiac disorders such as coronary artery disease, valvular disorders, and congenital heart disorders... read more . Carpal tunnel syndrome Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Carpal tunnel syndrome is compression of the median nerve as it passes through the carpal tunnel in the wrist. Symptoms include pain and paresthesias in the median nerve distribution. Diagnosis... read more
commonly precedes other neurologic disease manifestations. Vitreous deposits may develop due to production of mutant TTR by the retinal epithelium, or leptomeningeal deposits may develop as the choroid plexus produces mutant TTR. When cardiomyopathy is the predominant manifestation of TTR deposition in the heart, it is referred to as transthyretin amyloid cardiomyopathy (ATTR-CM).
ATTRwt amyloidosis (senile systemic amyloidosis)
ATTRwt is caused by aggregation and deposition of wild-type TTR, principally targeting the heart.
ATTRwt is increasingly recognized as a cause of infiltrative cardiomyopathy Restrictive Cardiomyopathy Restrictive cardiomyopathy is characterized by noncompliant ventricular walls that resist diastolic filling; one (most commonly the left) or both ventricles may be affected. Symptoms include... read more in older men. Approximately 16% of patients with aortic stenosis Aortic Stenosis Aortic stenosis (AS) is narrowing of the aortic valve, obstructing blood flow from the left ventricle to the ascending aorta during systole. Causes include a congenital bicuspid valve, idiopathic... read more undergoing transcatheter aortic valve replacement (2 Etiology references Amyloidosis is any of a group of disparate conditions characterized by extracellular deposition of insoluble fibrils composed of misaggregated proteins. These proteins may accumulate locally... read more
) and 13% of those hospitalized for heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) Heart failure (HF) is a syndrome of ventricular dysfunction. Left ventricular (LV) failure causes shortness of breath and fatigue, and right ventricular (RV) failure causes peripheral and abdominal... read more
also have transthyretin amyloid cardiomyopathy, in this case designated as wATTR-CM to denote deposition of wild-type TTR in the heart (3 Etiology references Amyloidosis is any of a group of disparate conditions characterized by extracellular deposition of insoluble fibrils composed of misaggregated proteins. These proteins may accumulate locally... read more
). Soft-tissue manifestations of ATTRwt amyloid, including carpal tunnel syndrome, bicipital tendon rupture, rotator cuff tears, and spinal stenosis, may precede clinical expression of infiltrative cardiomyopathy by years.
The genetic and epigenetic factors leading to ATTRwt are unknown. Because ATTRwt and AL amyloidosis both can cause cardiomyopathy, and because amyloidogenic monoclonal gammopathies may be present in patients in this age group, it is essential to accurately type the amyloid so that patients with ATTRwt are not inappropriately treated with chemotherapy (which is used for AL).
AA amyloidosis (secondary amyloidosis)
This form can occur secondary to several infectious, inflammatory, and malignant conditions and is caused by aggregation of isoforms of the acute-phase reactant serum amyloid A.
Common causative infections include
Predisposing inflammatory conditions include
Inherited periodic fever syndromes such as familial Mediterranean fever Familial Mediterranean Fever Familial Mediterranean fever is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by recurrent bouts of fever and peritonitis, sometimes with pleuritis, skin lesions, arthritis, and, rarely, pericarditis... read more
Castleman disease
Inflammatory cytokines (eg, interleukin [IL]-1, tumor necrosis factor [TNF], IL-6) that are produced in these disorders or ectopically by tumor cells cause increased hepatic synthesis of serum amyloid A (SAA).
AA amyloidosis shows a predilection for the kidneys, spleen, liver, adrenal glands, and lymph nodes. Involvement of the heart or peripheral and autonomic nerves occurs late in the disease course.
Localized amyloidosis
Localized amyloidosis outside the brain is most frequently caused by deposits of clonal immunoglobulin light chains; within the brain, amyloid beta protein predominates.
Localized amyloid deposits typically involve the airways and lung tissue, bladder and ureters, skin, breasts, and eyes. Rarely, other locally produced proteins cause amyloidosis, such as keratin isoforms that can form deposits locally in the skin. Clonal immunoglobulin light chains produced by mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue in the gastrointestinal tract, airways, and bladder can lead to localized AL in those organs.
Amyloid beta protein deposits in the brain contribute to Alzheimer disease Alzheimer Disease Alzheimer disease causes progressive cognitive deterioration and is characterized by beta-amyloid deposits and neurofibrillary tangles in the cerebral cortex and subcortical gray matter. Diagnosis... read more or cerebrovascular amyloid angiopathy. Other proteins produced in the central nervous system can misfold, aggregate, and damage neurons, leading to neurodegenerative diseases (eg, Parkinson disease Parkinson Disease Parkinson disease is a slowly progressive, degenerative disorder characterized by resting tremor, stiffness (rigidity), slow and decreased movement (bradykinesia), and eventually gait and/or... read more , Huntington disease Huntington Disease Huntington disease is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by chorea, neuropsychiatric symptoms, and progressive cognitive deterioration, usually beginning during middle age. Diagnosis... read more ).
Etiology references
1. Buxbaum JN, Ruberg FL: Transthyretin V122I (pV142I)* cardiac amyloidosis: an age-dependent autosomal dominant cardiomyopathy too common to be overlooked as a cause of significant heart disease in elderly African Americans. Genet Med 19(7):733-742, 2017. doi:10.1038/gim.2016.200
2. Fabbri G, Serenelli M, Cantone A, et al: Transthyretin amyloidosis in aortic stenosis: clinical and therapeutic implications. Eur Heart J Suppl 23(Suppl E):E128-E132, 2021. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/suab107
3. Magdi M, Mostafa MR, Abusnina W, et al: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the prevalence of transthyretin amyloidosis in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. Am J Cardiovasc Dis 12(3):102-111, 2022. PMID: 35873185
Symptoms and Signs of Amyloidosis
Symptoms and signs of systemic amyloidosis are nonspecific, often resulting in delays in diagnosis. Suspicion of amyloidosis should be increased in patients with a progressive multisystem disease process.
Renal amyloid deposits typically occur in the glomerular membrane leading to proteinuria, but in about 15% of cases the tubules are affected, causing azotemia with minimal proteinuria. These processes can progress to nephrotic syndrome Overview of Nephrotic Syndrome Nephrotic syndrome is urinary excretion of > 3 g of protein/day due to a glomerular disorder plus edema and hypoalbuminemia. It is more common among children and has both primary and secondary... read more with marked hypoalbuminemia, edema, and anasarca or to end-stage renal disease.
Hepatic involvement causes painless hepatomegaly, which may be massive. Liver tests typically suggest intrahepatic cholestasis with elevation of alkaline phosphatase and later bilirubin, although jaundice is rare. Occasionally, portal hypertension Portal Hypertension Portal hypertension is elevated pressure in the portal vein. It is caused most often by cirrhosis (in North America), schistosomiasis (in endemic areas), or hepatic vascular abnormalities. Consequences... read more develops, with resulting esophageal varices and ascites.
Airway and laryngeal involvement leads to dyspnea, hoarseness, wheezing, hemoptysis, or airway obstruction.
Infiltration of the myocardium causes a restrictive cardiomyopathy Restrictive Cardiomyopathy Restrictive cardiomyopathy is characterized by noncompliant ventricular walls that resist diastolic filling; one (most commonly the left) or both ventricles may be affected. Symptoms include... read more , eventually leading to diastolic dysfunction and heart failure Heart Failure (HF) Heart failure (HF) is a syndrome of ventricular dysfunction. Left ventricular (LV) failure causes shortness of breath and fatigue, and right ventricular (RV) failure causes peripheral and abdominal... read more ; heart block or arrhythmia may occur. Hypotension is common.
Peripheral neuropathy with paresthesias of the toes and fingers is a common presenting manifestation in AL and ATTR amyloidoses. Autonomic neuropathy Autonomic Neuropathies Autonomic neuropathies are peripheral nerve disorders with disproportionate involvement of autonomic fibers. (See also Overview of the Autonomic Nervous System.) The best known autonomic neuropathies... read more may cause orthostatic hypotension, erectile dysfunction, sweating abnormalities, urinary retention, and gastrointestinal motility disturbances.
Cerebrovascular amyloid angiopathy most often causes spontaneous cerebral hemorrhage Intracerebral Hemorrhage Intracerebral hemorrhage is focal bleeding from a blood vessel in the brain parenchyma. The cause is usually hypertension. Typical symptoms include focal neurologic deficits, often with abrupt... read more , but some patients have brief, transient neurologic symptoms.
Gastrointestinal amyloid may cause motility abnormalities of the esophagus Esophageal Motility Disorders Esophageal motility disorders involve dysfunction of the esophagus that causes symptoms such as dysphagia, heartburn, and chest pain. (See also Overview of Esophageal and Swallowing Disorders... read more and small and large intestines. Gastric atony, malabsorption Overview of Malabsorption Malabsorption is inadequate assimilation of dietary substances due to defects in digestion, absorption, or transport. Malabsorption can affect macronutrients (eg, proteins, carbohydrates, fats)... read more , bleeding, or pseudo-obstruction may also occur. Macroglossia is common in AL amyloidosis.
Soft tissue amyloid involvement characteristically precedes clinical expression of ATTRwt amyloid cardiomyopathy. Manifestations of soft tissue amyloid disease include carpal tunnel syndrome, trigger finger, bicipital tendon rupture, and spinal stenosis.
Amyloidosis of the thyroid gland may cause a firm, symmetric, nontender goiter resembling that found in Hashimoto thyroiditis Hashimoto Thyroiditis Hashimoto thyroiditis is chronic autoimmune inflammation of the thyroid with lymphocytic infiltration. Findings include painless thyroid enlargement and symptoms of hypothyroidism. Diagnosis... read more . Other endocrinopathies can also occur.
Lung involvement (mostly in AL amyloidosis) can be characterized by focal pulmonary nodules and cysts, tracheobronchial lesions, pleural effusions, or diffuse alveolar-septal (interstitial) deposits.
Amyloid vitreous opacities and bilateral scalloped pupillary margins develop in several hereditary amyloidoses.
Other manifestations include bruising, often around the eyes (raccoon eyes), caused by amyloid deposits in blood vessels. Amyloid deposits cause weakening of the blood vessels, which may rupture after minor trauma, such as sneezing or coughing.
Diagnosis of Amyloidosis
Biopsy
Amyloid typing
Testing for organ involvement
Biopsy
Diagnosis of amyloidosis is made by demonstration of fibrillar deposits in an involved organ. Aspiration of subcutaneous abdominal fat detects amyloid deposits in about 80% of patients with AL but less than 25% of patients with ATTRwt (1 Diagnosis references Amyloidosis is any of a group of disparate conditions characterized by extracellular deposition of insoluble fibrils composed of misaggregated proteins. These proteins may accumulate locally... read more ). If the fat biopsy result is negative, a clinically involved organ should be biopsied. The diagnostic sensitivity of kidney and heart biopsies is nearly 100% when these organs are clinically involved. Tissue sections are stained with Congo red dye and examined with a polarizing microscope for characteristic birefringence. Nonbranching 10-nm fibrils can also be recognized by electron microscopy on biopsy specimens from the heart or kidneys.
Nuclear scanning using bone-avid tracers can diagnose ATTR amyloid cardiomyopathy without heart biopsy, provided AL amyloidosis is ruled out.
Amyloid typing
After amyloidosis has been confirmed by biopsy, the type is determined using a variety of techniques. For some types of amyloidosis, immunohistochemistry or immunofluorescence may be diagnostic, but false-positive typing results occur. Other useful techniques include gene sequencing for AF and biochemical identification by mass spectrometry to accurately identify protein variants in amyloid deposits (the most sensitive and specific method).
If AL is suspected, patients should be evaluated for an underlying plasma cell disorder Overview of Plasma Cell Disorders Plasma cell disorders are a diverse group of disorders of unknown etiology characterized by Disproportionate proliferation of a single clone of B cells Presence of a structurally and electrophoretically... read more using quantitative measurement of serum free immunoglobulin light chains, qualitative detection of serum or urine monoclonal light chains using immunofixation electrophoresis (serum protein electrophoresis and urine protein electrophoresis are insensitive in patients with AL), and a bone marrow biopsy with flow cytometry or immunohistochemistry to establish plasma cell clonality.
Patients with > 10% clonal plasma cells should be tested to see if they meet criteria for multiple myeloma Diagnosis Multiple myeloma is a cancer of plasma cells that produce monoclonal immunoglobulin and invade and destroy adjacent bone tissue. Common manifestations include lytic lesions in bones that cause... read more , including screening for lytic bone lesions, anemia, renal insufficiency, and hypercalcemia.
Organ involvement
Patients are screened for organ involvement beginning with noninvasive testing:
Kidneys: Urinalysis; measurement of serum BUN, creatinine, and albumin; estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR); and 24-hour urine collection for protein electrophoresis (UPEP)
Liver: Liver function tests
Lungs: Chest x-ray, chest CT, and pulmonary function tests
Heart: ECG and measurement of biomarkers such as brain (B-type) natriuretic peptide (BNP) or N-terminal-pro-BNP (NT-proBNP) and troponin
Cardiac involvement can be suggested by low voltage on ECG (caused by a thickened ventricle) and/or dysrhythmias. If cardiac involvement is suspected because of symptoms, in addition to ECG findings and cardiac biomarkers, echocardiography is done to measure diastolic relaxation and global longitudinal strain (a measure of left ventricular systolic function) and to screen for biventricular hypertrophy. In ambiguous cases, cardiac MRI can be done to detect persistent subendocardial gadolinium enhancement, a characteristic finding. Cardiac technetium pyrophosphate nuclear scans improve detection of ATTR amyloid heart disease and can avoid the need for heart biopsies provided blood tests rule out AL amyloidosis (2, 3 Diagnosis references Amyloidosis is any of a group of disparate conditions characterized by extracellular deposition of insoluble fibrils composed of misaggregated proteins. These proteins may accumulate locally... read more ).
Diagnosis references
1. Aimo A, Emdin M, Musetti V, et al: Abdominal Fat Biopsy for the Diagnosis of Cardiac Amyloidosis. JACC Case Rep 2(8):1182-1185, 2020. doi:10.1016/j.jaccas.2020.05.062
2. Gillmore JD, Maurer MS, Falk RH, et al: Nonbiopsy diagnosis of cardiac transthyretin amyloidosis. Circulation 133(24):2404–2412, 2016.
3. Maurer MS, Bokhari S, Damy T, et al: Expert consensus recommendations for the suspicion and diagnosis of transthyretin cardiac amyloidosis. Circ Heart Fail 12(9):e006075, 2019.
Treatment of Amyloidosis
Supportive care
Type-specific treatment
There are specific treatments for most forms of amyloidosis, although some therapies are investigational. For all forms of systemic amyloidosis, supportive care measures can help relieve symptoms and improve quality of life.
Supportive care
Supportive care measures are directed at the affected organ system:
Renal: Patients with nephrotic syndrome Overview of Nephrotic Syndrome Nephrotic syndrome is urinary excretion of > 3 g of protein/day due to a glomerular disorder plus edema and hypoalbuminemia. It is more common among children and has both primary and secondary... read more and edema should be treated with salt and fluid restriction, and loop diuretics; because of the ongoing protein loss, protein intake should not be restricted. Kidney transplantation Kidney Transplantation Kidney transplantation is the most common type of solid organ transplantation. (See also Overview of Transplantation.) The primary indication for kidney transplantation is End-stage renal failure... read more is an option when the underlying disease process is controlled, and can provide long-term survival comparable to that in other renal diseases.
Cardiac: Patients with cardiomyopathy Overview of Cardiomyopathies A cardiomyopathy is a primary disorder of the heart muscle. It is distinct from structural cardiac disorders such as coronary artery disease, valvular disorders, and congenital heart disorders... read more should be treated with salt and fluid restriction and loop diuretics. Other medications for heart failure Heart Failure (HF) Heart failure (HF) is a syndrome of ventricular dysfunction. Left ventricular (LV) failure causes shortness of breath and fatigue, and right ventricular (RV) failure causes peripheral and abdominal... read more
, including digoxin, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, calcium channel blockers, and beta-blockers, are poorly tolerated and contraindicated. Heart transplantation Heart Transplantation Heart transplantation is an option for patients who have any of the following and who remain at risk of death and have intolerable symptoms despite optimal use of drugs and medical devices:... read more has been successful in carefully selected patients with AL or ATTR amyloidosis and severe cardiac involvement. To prevent recurrence in the transplanted heart, patients with AL amyloidosis must be given aggressive chemotherapy directed at the clonal plasma cell disorder, and patients with symptomatic ATTR amyloid polyneuropathy or cardiomyopathy should be considered for anti-TTR therapies.
Gastrointestinal: Patients with diarrhea may benefit from loperamide. Those with early satiety and gastric retention may benefit from metoclopramide.
Nervous system: In patients with peripheral neuropathy Peripheral Neuropathy Peripheral neuropathy is dysfunction of one or more peripheral nerves (the part of a nerve distal to the root and plexus). It includes numerous syndromes characterized by varying degrees of... read more , gabapentin, pregabalin, or duloxetine may relieve pain.
Orthostatic hypotension Orthostatic Hypotension Orthostatic (postural) hypotension is an excessive fall in blood pressure (BP) when an upright position is assumed. The consensus definition is a drop of > 20 mm Hg systolic, > 10 mm Hg... read more often improves with high doses of midodrine; this medication can cause urinary retention in older males, but the medication complication of supine hypertension is rarely a problem in this population. Support stockings can also help, and fludrocortisone can be used in patients without peripheral edema, anasarca, or heart failure. In patients with refractory orthostatic hypotension, midodrine, fludrocortisone, or droxidopa may be added.
AL amyloidosis
For AL amyloidosis:
Prompt initiation of anti-plasma cell therapy is essential to preserve organ function and prolong life.
Most medications used for multiple myeloma Treatment Multiple myeloma is a cancer of plasma cells that produce monoclonal immunoglobulin and invade and destroy adjacent bone tissue. Common manifestations include lytic lesions in bones that cause... read more have been used in AL amyloidosis; choice of medication, dose, and schedule often must be modified when organ function is impaired.
Chemotherapy using an alkylating agent (eg, melphalan, cyclophosphamide) combined with corticosteroids was the first regimen to show any benefit. High-dose IV melphalan, combined with autologous stem cell transplantation Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation Hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) transplantation is a rapidly evolving technique that offers a potential cure for hematologic cancers ( leukemias, lymphomas, myeloma) and other hematologic disorders... read more can be highly effective in selected patients (1 Treatment references Amyloidosis is any of a group of disparate conditions characterized by extracellular deposition of insoluble fibrils composed of misaggregated proteins. These proteins may accumulate locally... read more ).
Proteasome inhibitors (eg, bortezomib) and immunomodulators (eg, lenalidomide) also can be effective. A trial of the monoclonal antibody daratumumab plus cyclophosphamide, bortezomib, and dexamethasone in patients with newly diagnosed AL amyloidosis (excluding those with NYHA class III and IV heart failure, N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic protein [NTproBNP] > 8,500 pg/mL [> 1003 pmol/L], and eGFR < 20 mL/minute/m2) showed an unprecedented high rate of hematologic response (2 Treatment references Amyloidosis is any of a group of disparate conditions characterized by extracellular deposition of insoluble fibrils composed of misaggregated proteins. These proteins may accumulate locally... read more ). Hematologic response is based on monoclonal protein in serum and urine levels determined by immunofixation electrophoresis and serum light chain levels with kappa/lambda ratios. However, long-term survival data are lacking.
All available treatments target clonal B-cells or plasma cells in AL amyloidosis. Studies of antifibril antibodies, such as birtamimab and CAEL-101, are in progress (3 Treatment references Amyloidosis is any of a group of disparate conditions characterized by extracellular deposition of insoluble fibrils composed of misaggregated proteins. These proteins may accumulate locally... read more ).
Localized AL amyloidosis can be treated with low-dose external beam radiation therapy because plasma cells are highly radiosensitive.
ATTR amyloidosis
For ATTR amyloidosis:
Liver transplantation
Tetramer-stabilizing medications
Gene silencing medications
Liver transplantation Liver Transplantation Liver transplantation is the 2nd most common type of solid organ transplantation. (See also Overview of Transplantation.) Indications for liver transplantation include Cirrhosis (70% of transplantations... read more —which replaces the primary site of synthesis of the mutant protein with a new organ producing normal TTR—can be effective in certain TTR mutations if done at disease onset (early neuropathy and no heart involvement). Transplantation later in the course of the disease often leads to progressive amyloid cardiomyopathy and neuropathy due to the misfolding and deposition of wild-type TTR protein onto pre-existing amyloid deposits.
Several medications have been shown to stabilize TTR tetramers circulating in the plasma, inhibiting TTR misfolding and fibril formation and effectively slowing neurologic disease progression while preserving quality of life. These TTR stabilizers include diflunisal, a widely available generic anti-inflammatory drug, and tafamidis (4, 5 Treatment references Amyloidosis is any of a group of disparate conditions characterized by extracellular deposition of insoluble fibrils composed of misaggregated proteins. These proteins may accumulate locally... read more ).
TTR gene silencing using anti-sense RNA or RNA interference to block translation of TTR mRNA efficiently reduces serum levels of TTR, improves neurologic outcomes in about 50% of patients, and, in some patients, appears capable of repairing injured nerves (6, 7 Treatment references Amyloidosis is any of a group of disparate conditions characterized by extracellular deposition of insoluble fibrils composed of misaggregated proteins. These proteins may accumulate locally... read more ). The gene silencing medications, patisiran, inotersen, and vutrisiran are available.
A trial of vutrisiran, a second-generation gene silencer,demonstrated improved functional outcomes in patients with familial amyloid polyneuropathy (8 Treatment references Amyloidosis is any of a group of disparate conditions characterized by extracellular deposition of insoluble fibrils composed of misaggregated proteins. These proteins may accumulate locally... read more ). Preliminary data from another trial suggests that gene silencers may be effective in the treatment of cardiomyopathy in patients with ATTR amyloidosis (9 Treatment references Amyloidosis is any of a group of disparate conditions characterized by extracellular deposition of insoluble fibrils composed of misaggregated proteins. These proteins may accumulate locally... read more
).
ATTRwt amyloidosis
For ATTRwt amyloidosis:
Tetramer-stabilizing medications
TTR stabilization using tafamidis, in patients with ATTR or ATTRwt amyloid cardiomyopathy has been shown to decrease all-cause mortality and cardiovascular-related hospitalizations (5 Treatment references Amyloidosis is any of a group of disparate conditions characterized by extracellular deposition of insoluble fibrils composed of misaggregated proteins. These proteins may accumulate locally... read more ). Clinical trials are underway examining the effect of TTR gene silencers on the cardiomyopathy that occurs in patients with ATTRwt amyloidosis as well as the cardiomyopathy that occurs in patients with ATTR amyloidosis characterized by the mutant protein (10 Treatment references Amyloidosis is any of a group of disparate conditions characterized by extracellular deposition of insoluble fibrils composed of misaggregated proteins. These proteins may accumulate locally... read more
).
Unlike hereditary ATTR amyloidosis, liver transplantation is not effective for patients with ATTRwt because the amyloidogenic protein is a structurally normal TTR.
AA amyloidosis
For AA amyloidosis caused by familial Mediterranean fever, oral colchicine is effective.
For other AA types, treatment is directed at the underlying infection, inflammatory disease, or cancer.
Colchicine or anti-IL1, anti-IL6, or anti-TNF medications may be used to interrupt the cytokine signaling, diminishing the inflammatory process driving hepatic production of serum amyloid A (SAA).
Treatment references
1. Sanchorawala V, Sun F, Quillen K, et al: Long-term outcome of patients with AL amyloidosis treated with high-dose melphalan and stem cell transplantation: 20-year experience. Blood 126: 2345–2347, 2015. doi: 10.1182/blood-2015-08-662726
2. Kastritis E, Palladini G, Minnema MC, et al: Daratumumab-Based Treatment for Immunoglobulin Light-Chain Amyloidosis. N Engl J Med 385(1):46-58, 2021. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2028631
3. Quarta CC, Fontana M, Damy T, et al: Changing paradigm in the treatment of amyloidosis: From disease-modifying drugs to anti-fibril therapy. Front Cardiovasc Med 9:1073503, 2022. doi:10.3389/fcvm.2022.1073503
4. Berk JL, Suhr OB, Obici L, et al: Repurposing diflunisal for familial amyloid polyneuropathy: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 310: 2658–2667, 2013. doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.283815
5. Maurer MS, Schwartz JH, Gundapaneni B, et al: Tafamidis treatment for patients with transthyretin amyloid cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med 379:1007–1016, 2018.
6. Adams D, Gonzalez-Duarte A, O'Riordan WD, et al: Patisiran, an RNAi therapeutic, for hereditary transthyretin amyloidosis. N Engl J Med 379:11–21, 2018.
7. Benson MD, Waddington-Cruz M, Berk JL, et al: Inotersen treatment for patients with transthyretin amyloidosis. N Engl J Med 379:22–31, 2018.
8. Adams D, Tournev IL, Taylor MS, et al: Efficacy and safety of vutrisiran for patients with hereditary transthyretin-mediated amyloidosis with polyneuropathy: a randomized clinical trial. Amyloid 30(1):1-9, 2023. doi:10.1080/13506129.2022.2091985
9. Maurer MS, Fontanta MA, Berk JL, et al: Primary results from APOLLO-B, a phase 3 study of patisiran in patients with transthyretin-mediated amyloidosis with cardiomyopathy. Abstract presented at International Symposium of Amyloidosis, September 2022,Heidelberg Germany.
10. Writing Committee, Kittleson MM, Ruberg FL, et al: 2023 ACC Expert Consensus Decision Pathway on Comprehensive Multidisciplinary Care for the Patient With Cardiac Amyloidosis: A Report of the American College of Cardiology Solution Set Oversight Committee [published correction appears in J Am Coll Cardiol 81(11):1135, 2023]. J Am Coll Cardiol 81(11):1076-1126, 2023. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2022.11.022
Prognosis for Amyloidosis
Prognosis depends on the type of amyloidosis and the organ system involved, but with appropriate disease-specific and supportive care, many patients have an excellent life expectancy.
AL complicated by severe cardiomyopathy has the poorest prognosis, with median survival of < 1 year. Untreated ATTR amyloidosis usually progresses to end-stage cardiac or neurologic disease within 5 to 15 years. ATTRwt was once thought to have the slowest progression of any systemic amyloidosis involving the heart; however, patients with ATTRwt do progress to symptomatic heart failure and death within a median of 4 years from biopsy diagnosis.
Prognosis in AA amyloidosis depends largely upon the effectiveness of treatment of the underlying infectious, inflammatory, or malignant disorder.
Key Points
Amyloidosis is a group of disorders in which certain misfolded proteins aggregate into insoluble fibrils that are deposited within organs, causing dysfunction.
Many different proteins are prone to misfold; some of these proteins are produced by a genetic defect or by certain disease states, whereas others involve immunoglobulin light chains produced by monoclonal plasma cell or other B-cell lymphoproliferative disorders.
The amyloidogenic protein determines the amyloid type and clinical course of disease, although the clinical manifestations of the different types may overlap.
Many organs can be affected, but cardiac involvement carries a particularly poor prognosis; amyloid cardiomyopathy typically leads to diastolic dysfunction, heart failure, and heart block or arrhythmia.
Diagnosis is by biopsy; type of amyloidosis is determined by a variety of immunologic, genetic, and biochemical tests. Mass spectrometry is the most sensitive and specific method for amyloid typing.
Appropriate supportive care will help relieve symptoms and improve quality of life; organ transplantation can help selected patients.
Treat the underlying process; for AL amyloidosis due to plasma cell or lymphoproliferative disorders, chemotherapy can be highly effective; for secondary AA amyloidosis, anti-infectious and anti-inflammatory drugs can help.
For hereditary ATTR amyloidosis, small molecule stabilizer therapeutics and gene-silencing medications inhibit or potentially reverse neurologic deterioration; for patients with amyloid cardiomyopathy (ATTR or ATTRwt), tafamidis decreases all-cause mortality and cardiovascular-related hospitalizations.
Drugs Mentioned In This Article
Drug Name | Select Trade |
---|---|
digoxin |
Digitek , Lanoxicaps, Lanoxin, Lanoxin Pediatric |
loperamide |
Anti-Diarrheal, Imodium A-D, Imodium A-D EZ Chews , K-Pek II |
metoclopramide |
Gimoti, Metozolv, Reglan |
gabapentin |
Active-PAC with Gabapentin, Gabarone , Gralise, Horizant, Neurontin |
pregabalin |
Lyrica, Lyrica CR |
duloxetine |
Cymbalta, Drizalma, Irenka |
midodrine |
Orvaten, ProAmatine |
fludrocortisone |
Florinef |
droxidopa |
NORTHERA |
melphalan |
Alkeran, Evomela |
cyclophosphamide |
Cyclophosphamide, Cytoxan, Neosar |
bortezomib |
Velcade |
lenalidomide |
Revlimid |
daratumumab |
DARZALEX |
dexamethasone |
AK-Dex, Baycadron, Dalalone, Dalalone D.P, Dalalone L.A, Decadron, Decadron-LA, Dexabliss, Dexacort PH Turbinaire, Dexacort Respihaler, DexPak Jr TaperPak, DexPak TaperPak, Dextenza, DEXYCU, DoubleDex, Dxevo, Hemady, HiDex, Maxidex, Ocu-Dex , Ozurdex, ReadySharp Dexamethasone, Simplist Dexamethasone, Solurex, TaperDex, ZCORT, Zema-Pak, ZoDex, ZonaCort 11 Day, ZonaCort 7 Day |
diflunisal |
Dolobid |
tafamidis |
Vyndamax, Vyndaqel |
patisiran |
ONPATTRO |
inotersen |
Tegsedi |
vutrisiran |
AMVUTTRA |
colchicine |
ColciGel, Colcrys , GLOPERBA, LODOCO, MITIGARE |