Heart Failure (HF)

Cardiac disorders that cause heart failure may impair the entire heart or one area of the heart. In many cases, a combination of factors results in heart failure.

A common cardiac cause of heart failure is

Coronary artery disease can impair large areas of heart muscle because it reduces the flow of oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle, which needs oxygen for normal contraction. Blockage of a coronary artery can cause a heart attack Acute Coronary Syndromes (Heart Attack; Myocardial Infarction; Unstable Angina) Acute coronary syndromes result from a sudden blockage in a coronary artery. This blockage causes unstable angina or a heart attack (myocardial infarction), depending on the location and amount... read more , which destroys an area of heart muscle. As a result, that area can no longer contract normally.

Other cardiac causes of heart failure include

Myocarditis Myocarditis Myocarditis is inflammation of the muscle tissue of the heart (myocardium) that causes tissue death. Myocarditis may be caused by many disorders, including infection, toxins and drugs that affect... read more (heart inflammation) caused by a bacterial, viral, or other infection can damage all or part of the heart muscle, impairing its pumping ability.

Some drugs used to treat cancer and some toxins (such as alcohol) may also damage heart muscle.

Heart valve disorders Overview of Heart Valve Disorders Heart valves regulate the flow of blood through the heart's four chambers—two small, round upper chambers (atria) and two larger, cone-shaped lower chambers (ventricles). Each ventricle has... read more —narrowing (stenosis) of a valve, which hinders blood flow through the heart, or leakage of blood backward (regurgitation or insufficiency) through a valve—can cause heart failure. Both stenosis and regurgitation of a valve can severely stress the heart, so that over time, the heart enlarges and cannot pump adequately.

An abnormal connection (for example, ventricular septal defect Atrial and Ventricular Septal Defects Atrial and ventricular septal defects are holes in the walls (septa) that separate the heart into the left and right sides. Holes can be present in the walls of the heart between the upper heart... read more ) between the heart chambers can allow blood to recirculate within the heart, increasing the workload of the heart, and thus can cause heart failure.

Disorders that affect the heart’s electrical conduction system (see figure ) and cause prolonged changes in heart rhythms Overview of Abnormal Heart Rhythms Abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias) are sequences of heartbeats that are irregular, too fast, too slow, or conducted via an abnormal electrical pathway through the heart. Heart disorders are... read more (especially if these are fast or irregular) can cause heart failure. When the heart beats abnormally, it cannot pump blood efficiently.

Some genetic disorders can affect the heart and cause heart failure. For example, Duchenne muscular dystrophy Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy and Becker Muscular Dystrophy Muscular dystrophies are a group of inherited muscle disorders in which one or more genes needed for normal muscle structure and function are defective, leading to muscle weakness of varying... read more causes weakness of the heart muscle (along with many other muscles). Down syndrome Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21) Down syndrome is a chromosome disorder caused by an extra chromosome 21 that results in intellectual disability and physical abnormalities. Down syndrome is caused by an extra chromosome 21... read more can cause birth defects of the heart.

Heart failure may result from disorders that cause the heart’s walls to stiffen, such as infiltrations and infections. For example, in amyloidosis Amyloidosis Amyloidosis is a rare disease in which abnormally folded proteins form into collections called amyloid fibrils that accumulate in various tissues and organs, sometimes leading to organ dysfunction... read more , amyloid, an abnormal protein passes into (infiltrates) many tissues in the body. If amyloid infiltrates the heart’s walls, they stiffen, and heart failure results. In tropical countries, infiltration of heart muscle by certain parasites (such as in Chagas disease Chagas Disease Chagas disease is an infection caused by the protozoa Trypanosoma cruzi, which is transmitted by the bite of a kissing bug (also called an assassin or Triatominae bug). The protozoa ... read more ) can cause heart failure, even in young people.

In constrictive pericarditis Overview of Pericardial Disease Pericardial disease affects the pericardium, which is the flexible two-layered sac that envelops the heart. The pericardium helps keep the heart in position, helps prevent the heart from overfilling... read more , the sac that envelops the heart (pericardium) stiffens, preventing even a healthy heart from pumping and filling normally.

The most common non-cardiac cause of heart failure is

High blood pressure stresses the heart because the heart must pump blood more forcefully than normal to eject blood into the arteries against the higher pressure. Eventually, the heart’s walls thicken (hypertrophy) and/or stiffen. The stiff heart does not fill quickly or adequately, so that with each contraction, the heart pumps less blood than it normally does. Diabetes Diabetes Mellitus (DM) Diabetes mellitus is a disorder in which the body does not produce enough or respond normally to insulin, causing blood sugar (glucose) levels to be abnormally high. Symptoms of diabetes may... read more and obesity Obesity Obesity is a chronic, recurring complex disorder characterized by excess body weight. Obesity is influenced by a combination of factors that includes genetics, hormones, behavior, and the environment... read more also cause changes that stiffen the walls of the ventricle.

As people age, the heart’s walls also tend to stiffen. The combination of high blood pressure, obesity, and diabetes Diabetes Mellitus (DM) Diabetes mellitus is a disorder in which the body does not produce enough or respond normally to insulin, causing blood sugar (glucose) levels to be abnormally high. Symptoms of diabetes may... read more , which are common among older people, and age-related stiffening makes heart failure particularly common among older people.

Less common non-cardiac causes of heart failure include

Some lung disorders, such as pulmonary hypertension Pulmonary Hypertension Pulmonary hypertension is a condition in which blood pressure in the arteries of the lungs (the pulmonary arteries) is abnormally high. Many disorders can cause pulmonary hypertension. People... read more , may alter or damage blood vessels in the lungs (pulmonary arteries). As a result, the right side of the heart has to work harder to pump blood into the lungs. The person may then develop cor pulmonale Cor Pulmonale Cor pulmonale is enlargement and thickening of the ventricle on the right side of the heart resulting from an underlying lung disorder that causes pulmonary hypertension (high pressures in the... read more , in which the right ventricle is enlarged and there is right-sided heart failure.

Sudden, severe blockage of a pulmonary artery by one or more blood clots (pulmonary embolism Pulmonary Embolism (PE) Pulmonary embolism is the blocking of an artery of the lung (pulmonary artery) by a collection of solid material brought through the bloodstream (embolus)—usually a blood clot (thrombus) or... read more ) also makes pumping blood into the pulmonary arteries difficult and can cause right-sided heart failure.

Anemia Overview of Anemia Anemia is a condition in which the number of red blood cells is low. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin, a protein that enables them to carry oxygen from the lungs and deliver it to all parts... read more is a severe deficiency of red blood cells (low blood count). Red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to body tissues. Anemia reduces the amount of oxygen the blood carries, so that the heart must work harder to provide the same amount of oxygen to tissues. Anemia has many causes, including heart failure itself.

An overactive thyroid gland (hyperthyroidism Hyperthyroidism Hyperthyroidism is overactivity of the thyroid gland that leads to high levels of thyroid hormones and speeding up of vital body functions. Graves disease is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism... read more ) overstimulates the heart, so that it pumps too rapidly and does not empty normally during each heartbeat. When the thyroid gland is underactive (hypothyroidism Hypothyroidism Hypothyroidism is underactivity of the thyroid gland that leads to inadequate production of thyroid hormones and a slowing of vital body functions. Facial expressions become dull, the voice... read more ), all muscles, including the heart, become weak because muscles depend on thyroid hormones to function normally.

Kidney failure Overview of Kidney Failure Kidney failure is the inability of the kidneys to adequately filter metabolic waste products from the blood. Kidney failure has many possible causes. Some lead to a rapid decline in kidney function... read more strains the heart because the kidneys cannot remove excess fluid from the bloodstream, so the heart has a larger volume of blood to pump. Eventually, the heart cannot keep up, and heart failure develops.

Some drugs, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, may cause the body to retain fluid, which increases the workload of the heart and may precipitate heart failure.

The body’s first response to stress, including that due to heart failure, is to release the fight-or-flight hormones, epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). For example, these hormones may be released immediately after a heart attack damages the heart. Epinephrine and norepinephrine cause the heart to pump faster and more forcefully. They help the heart increase the amount of blood pumped out (cardiac output), sometimes to a normal amount, and thus initially help compensate for the heart’s impaired pumping ability.

People who do not have heart disease usually benefit from release of these hormones when more work is temporarily required of the heart. However, for people who have chronic heart failure, this sustained response increases demands on an already damaged heart. Over time, the heart stops responding as well to the hormones, and the increased demands lead to further deterioration of heart function.

Another of the body’s main compensatory mechanisms for the reduced blood flow in heart failure is to increase the amount of salt and water retained by the kidneys. Retaining salt and water instead of excreting it into urine increases the volume of blood in the bloodstream and helps maintain blood pressure. However, the larger volume of blood also stretches the heart muscle, enlarging the heart chambers, particularly the ventricles. At first, the more the heart muscle is stretched, the more forcefully it contracts, which improves heart function. However, after a certain amount of stretching, stretching no longer helps but instead weakens the heart’s contractions (as when a rubber band is overstretched). Consequently, heart failure worsens. In addition, salt and water retention increase fluid congestion in organs such as the lungs, leading to worsening symptoms of heart failure.

Another important compensatory mechanism is enlargement of the muscular walls of the ventricles (ventricular hypertrophy). When the heart must work harder, the heart’s walls enlarge and thicken, as biceps muscles enlarge after months of weight training. At first, the enlargement allows the heart to maintain the amount of blood it pumps out (cardiac output). However, the enlarged and/or thickened heart eventually becomes stiff, causing or worsening heart failure. Also, the enlargement can stretch the heart valve openings, causing them to malfunction, which causes more pumping problems.

The main symptom of right-sided heart failure is fluid accumulation, leading to swelling (edema Swelling Swelling is due to excess fluid in the tissues. The fluid is predominantly water. Swelling may be widespread or confined to a single limb or part of a limb. Swelling is often in the feet and... read more ) in the feet, ankles, legs, lower back, liver, and abdomen. Where the fluid accumulates depends on the amount of excess fluid and the effects of gravity. If a person is standing, fluid accumulates in the legs and feet. If a person is lying down, fluid usually accumulates in the lower back. If the amount of fluid is large, fluid also accumulates in the abdomen. Fluid accumulation in the liver or stomach can cause nausea, bloating, and loss of appetite. Severe right-sided heart failure can result in loss of weight and muscle. This condition is called cardiac cachexia.

Left-sided heart failure leads to fluid accumulation in the lungs, which causes shortness of breath Shortness of Breath Shortness of breath—what doctors call dyspnea—is the unpleasant sensation of having difficulty breathing. People experience and describe shortness of breath differently depending on the cause... read more . At first, shortness of breath occurs only during exertion, but as heart failure progresses, it occurs with less and less exertion and eventually occurs even at rest. People with severe left-sided heart failure may be short of breath when lying down (a condition called orthopnea) because gravity causes more fluid to move into the lungs. Such people often wake up, gasping for breath or wheezing (a condition called paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea). Sitting up causes some of the fluid to drain to the bottom of the lungs and makes breathing easier. People with left-sided heart failure also feel tired and weak when doing physical activities, because their muscles are not receiving enough blood.

When heart failure is advanced, Cheyne-Stokes respiration (periodic breathing) may develop. In this unusual pattern of breathing, a person has a period of not breathing for a few seconds, and then begins to breathe progressively faster and deeper, then slower and shallower until they again briefly stop breathing and repeat the cycle over and over. Cheyne-Stokes respiration develops because blood flow to the brain is reduced and the areas of the brain that control breathing therefore do not receive enough oxygen. Cheyne-Stokes respiration is considered a form of central sleep apnea Central sleep apnea Sleep apnea is a serious disorder in which breathing repeatedly stops long enough to disrupt sleep and often temporarily decrease the amount of oxygen and increase the amount of carbon dioxide... read more .

Obstructive sleep apnea Sleep Apnea Sleep apnea is a serious disorder in which breathing repeatedly stops long enough to disrupt sleep and often temporarily decrease the amount of oxygen and increase the amount of carbon dioxide... read more (in which airway blockage interrupts sleep, resulting in daytime sleepiness) is a different and more common breathing disorder that can occur in people with or without heart failure. Severe obstructive sleep apnea can make heart failure worse.

Acute pulmonary edema is a sudden accumulation of a large amount of fluid in the lungs. It causes extreme difficulty breathing, rapid breathing, bluish skin, and feelings of restlessness, anxiety, and suffocation. Some people have severe spasms of the airways (bronchospasms) and wheezing. Acute pulmonary edema is a life-threatening emergency that can occur when people with heart failure develop very high blood pressure, have a heart attack, or sometimes just stop taking their heart failure drugs or eat salty food.

Blood clots can form in the heart chambers when the heart is severely damaged. The blood clots can form because blood flow within the chambers is sluggish. Clots may break loose (becoming emboli), travel through the bloodstream, and partially or completely block an artery elsewhere in the body. If a clot blocks an artery to the brain, a stroke Overview of Stroke A stroke occurs when an artery to the brain becomes blocked or ruptures, resulting in death of an area of brain tissue due to loss of its blood supply (cerebral infarction). Symptoms occur suddenly... read more may result.

Depression Depression Depression is a feeling of sadness and/or a decreased interest or pleasure in activities that becomes a disorder when it is intense enough to interfere with functioning. It may follow a recent... read more and decline in mental function are common in people with severe heart failure, particularly in older people, and require careful evaluation and treatment.

A chest x-ray can show an enlarged heart, and congested blood vessels and fluid accumulation in the lungs.

Electrocardiography Electrocardiography Electrocardiography (ECG) is a quick, simple, painless procedure in which the heart’s electrical impulses are amplified and recorded. This record, the electrocardiogram (also known as an ECG)... read more (ECG) is almost always done to determine whether the heart rhythm is normal, whether the walls of the ventricles are thickened, and whether the person has had a heart attack.

Echocardiography Echocardiography and Other Ultrasound Procedures Ultrasonography uses high-frequency (ultrasound) waves bounced off internal structures to produce a moving image. It uses no x-rays. Ultrasonography of the heart (echocardiography) is one of... read more , which uses sound waves to produce an image of the heart, is one of the best procedures for evaluating heart function, including the pumping ability of the heart and the functioning of heart valves. Echocardiography can show the following:

Echocardiography may help determine whether heart failure is due to systolic or diastolic dysfunction by enabling doctors to estimate the thickness and stiffness of the heart walls and the ejection fraction. The ejection fraction, an important measure of heart function, is the percentage of blood pumped out by the heart with each beat. A normal left ventricle ejects about 55 to 60% of the blood in it. If the ejection fraction is low (less than 40%), systolic heart failure is confirmed. If the ejection fraction is normal or high in a person who has symptoms of heart failure, diastolic heart failure is likely.

Blood tests are almost always done. Doctors frequently measure natriuretic peptides (NPs). NPs are substances that accumulate in the blood when heart failure is present but less often when other disorders that cause shortness of breath are present. Other blood tests may be done to look for disorders that may be causing heart failure.

Other procedures, such as radionuclide imaging Radionuclide Imaging of the Heart In radionuclide imaging, a tiny amount of a radioactive substance (radionuclide), called a tracer, is injected into a vein. The amount of radiation the person receives from the radionuclide... read more , magnetic resonance imaging Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the Heart With magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), a powerful magnetic field and radio waves are used to produce detailed images of the heart and chest. This expensive and sophisticated procedure is used... read more (MRI), computed tomography Computed Tomography (CT) of the Heart Computed tomography (CT) may be used to detect structural abnormalities of the heart, the sac that envelops the heart (pericardium), major blood vessels, lungs, and supporting structures in... read more , cardiac catheterization with angiography Cardiac Catheterization and Coronary Angiography Cardiac catheterization and coronary angiography are minimally invasive methods of studying the heart and the blood vessels that supply the heart (coronary arteries) without doing surgery. These... read more , and exercise (stress) testing Stress Testing Stressing the heart (by exercise or by use of stimulant drugs to make the heart beat faster and more forcibly) can help identify coronary artery disease. In coronary artery disease, blood flow... read more may be done to identify the presence or cause of heart failure.

Rarely, a biopsy of heart muscle is needed, usually when doctors suspect infiltration of the heart (as occurs in amyloidosis Amyloidosis Amyloidosis is a rare disease in which abnormally folded proteins form into collections called amyloid fibrils that accumulate in various tissues and organs, sometimes leading to organ dysfunction... read more ) or myocarditis due to a bacterial, viral, or other infection.

Although for most people heart failure is a chronic disorder, much can be done to make physical activity more comfortable, improve the quality of life, minimize the risk of sudden worsening (acute heart failure), and prolong life. Affected people and their family members should learn all they can about heart failure because much care occurs at home. In particular, they should know how to recognize the early warning symptoms of worsening heart failure and should be aware of the actions they need to take (for example, reduce salt intake, take an extra dose of a diuretic, or contact their doctor).

Regular communication with health care practitioners and examinations by doctors are critical because heart failure can worsen suddenly. For example, nurses may regularly call people who have heart failure to ask about changes in weight and in symptoms. Thus, they can gauge whether people need to see a doctor.

People may also go to specialized heart failure clinics. These clinics have doctors with expertise in heart failure who work closely with specially trained nurses and other health care practitioners, such as pharmacists, dietitians, and social workers, to care for people with heart failure by teaching self-care skills to people and their caregivers. These clinics can also help decrease symptoms, reduce hospitalizations, and improve life expectancy by making sure that people receive the most effective treatments and by teaching people how to fully participate in their care. This care complements rather than replaces care provided by primary care doctors.

People with heart failure should always check with their doctor before taking a new drug, even a nonprescription drug. Some drugs (including many used to treat arthritis) can cause salt and fluid retention. Other drugs may make the heart function less efficiently. Forgetting to take necessary drugs is a common cause of worsening symptoms, and people should be given ways to remind themselves to take their drugs.

Because influenza can cause a sudden worsening of a person's heart failure, doctors recommend a yearly influenza vaccination Influenza Vaccine The influenza virus vaccine helps protect against influenza. Two types of influenza virus, type A and type B, regularly cause seasonal epidemics of influenza in the United States. There are... read more for people with heart failure. Vaccination against COVID-19 COVID-19 Vaccine Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccines provide protection against COVID-19. COVID-19 is the disease caused by infection with the SARS-CoV-2 virus. There are multiple COVID-19 vaccines... read more is also recommended.

For example, if the cause of heart failure is a narrowed or leaking heart valve or an abnormal connection between heart chambers, surgery can often correct the problem. Blockage of a coronary artery Treatment Coronary artery disease is a condition in which the blood supply to the heart muscle is partially or completely blocked. The heart muscle needs a constant supply of oxygen-rich blood. The coronary... read more may require treatment with drugs, surgery, or angioplasty with a coronary stent. Antihypertensive drugs can reduce and control high blood pressure. Antibiotics can eliminate some infections.

Changes in lifestyle can help people with heart failure feel and function better.

People who have heart failure should stay as physically fit as possible, even if they cannot exercise vigorously. People who have mild heart failure should follow an exercise program as prescribed by a doctor. People with more severe heart failure may need to exercise in a cardiovascular rehabilitation facility under the supervision of a trained attendant.

If people with heart failure are overweight, the heart has to work harder during activity, worsening heart failure. Such people should follow a healthy weight loss diet to attain and maintain ideal weight.

Smoking damages blood vessels. Large amounts of alcohol can act as a direct toxin to the heart. Thus, smoking Smoking Cessation Most people who smoke want to quit and have tried doing so with limited success. Effective tools to help quit smoking include counseling, nicotine replacement products, and medications. While... read more and drinking alcohol can worsen heart failure and should be stopped or at least minimized.

Excess salt (sodium) in the diet can cause fluid retention, which counteracts drugs given to increase the excretion of water (such as diuretics) and relieve fluid accumulation. Thus, consuming excess salt worsens symptoms. Almost all people with heart failure should limit their intake of table salt and salty foods and their use of salt in cooking. The sodium content of packaged foods can be determined by reading the label. People with severe heart failure are usually given detailed information about how to limit salt intake. Instruction by a dietitian can be helpful. People who limit their salt intake can usually consume a normal amount of water unless fluid retention is severe. Drinking extra amounts of water is not recommended.

A simple, reliable way to check whether the body is retaining fluid is to check body weight daily. Doctors often ask people with heart failure to weigh themselves as accurately as possible every day, typically once in the morning, after they arise and urinate and before they eat breakfast. Trends are easier to spot when people weigh themselves at the same time every day, use the same scale, wear a similar amount of clothing, and keep a written record of their daily weight. Increases of more than 2 pounds (about 1 kilogram) per day are early warning signs of fluid retention. A consistent, rapid weight gain (such as 2 pounds per day) is a clue that heart failure is worsening.

Many people who limit their salt intake still have swelling. Swollen legs should be kept elevated on a stool when sitting. This position helps the body reabsorb and eliminate the excess fluid. Some people also need to wear full-length supportive stockings that help prevent accumulation of fluid. If fluid accumulates in the lungs, sleeping with several pillows or elevating the head of the bed makes sleeping easier.

Drug treatment of heart failure involves

For details on the specific drugs and classes, see Drug Treatment of Heart Failure Drug Treatment for Heart Failure Heart failure is a disorder in which the heart is unable to keep up with the demands of the body, leading to reduced blood flow, back-up (congestion) of blood in the veins and lungs, and/or... read more .

The type of drug used depends on the type of heart failure. In systolic heart failure (HFrEF), all drug classes are helpful. In diastolic heart failure (HFpEF), only ACE inhibitors, ARBs, aldosterone antagonists and beta-blockers are typically used. In HFmrEF, ARNIs may be helpful.

It is important for people to take their drugs regularly and be sure not to let the prescription run out.

People with pulmonary edema require oxygen Oxygen Therapy Oxygen therapy is a treatment that delivers extra oxygen to the lungs when the level of oxygen in the blood is too low. Oxygen is a gas that makes up about 21% of the air we breathe. The lungs... read more , which is sometimes given by special masks. Occasionally, a tube may be inserted into the airway so that a mechanical ventilator Mechanical Ventilation Mechanical ventilation is use of a machine to aid the movement of air into and out of the lungs. Some people with respiratory failure need a mechanical ventilator (a machine that helps air get... read more can help with the increased work of breathing.

Sometimes doctors implant a small monitoring device in the chest of people with severe heart failure The monitor continuously measures the pressures in their lungs, which can help their doctor make adjustments to their drugs. The device is especially useful in people with recurrent episodes of heart failure and coexisting kidney failure Overview of Kidney Failure Kidney failure is the inability of the kidneys to adequately filter metabolic waste products from the blood. Kidney failure has many possible causes. Some lead to a rapid decline in kidney function... read more .

Heart transplantation Heart Transplantation Heart transplantation is the removal of a healthy heart from a recently deceased person and then its transfer into the body of a person who has a severe heart disorder that can no longer be... read more may be an option for people who have very severe, worsening heart failure and who have not responded to drug therapy.

Mechanical devices that help pump blood are used for certain people with very severe heart failure that is not responding to drug therapy. Types of devices include

Heart rhythm problems can sometimes be helped with drugs, but some people require a pacemaker Artificial Pacemakers There are many causes of abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias). Some arrhythmias are harmless and do not need treatment. Sometimes arrhythmias stop on their own or with changes in lifestyle,... read more . Special pacemakers with two or three wires can restore the normal sequence of heart chamber contractions (cardiac resynchronization therapy) and improve outcome in some people with heart failure. Doctors may consider an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator Cardioversion-Defibrillation There are many causes of abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias). Some arrhythmias are harmless and do not need treatment. Sometimes arrhythmias stop on their own or with changes in lifestyle,... read more in people with very poor heart function because their risk of sudden death is increased.

If heart failure is caused by a problem with a heart valve, doctors may repair or replace the valve.

Heart failure that develops or worsens quickly requires emergency treatment in a hospital.

If acute pulmonary edema (rapid accumulation of fluid in the lungs) develops, oxygen is given through a face mask. Diuretics given intravenously and other drugs such as nitroglycerin given intravenously or under the tongue can give rapid, dramatic improvement. Morphine relieves the anxiety that usually accompanies acute pulmonary edema but it also decreases the rate of breathing and is no longer used as often. If these measures do not adequately improve breathing, a specialized mask to deliver oxygen at controlled pressures may be used or a tube may be inserted into the person’s airway so that a mechanical ventilator can assist breathing.

For people who have severe symptoms and have not responded well to treatments, drugs that are similar to epinephrine and norepinephrine (such as dopamine or dobutamine) or other drugs that make cardiac muscle contract more forcefully (such as milrinone) are sometimes used for a short time to enhance the pumping function of the heart. These drugs are not useful for long-term treatment.

Life expectancy depends on many factors, including how severe the heart failure is, whether its cause can be corrected, and which treatment is used. However, once people have needed to be hospitalized for heart failure, only about 1 in 3 live another 5 years. About half of those who have severe heart failure live at least 2 years. Life expectancy does improve with treatment.

Eventually, for a person whose heart failure has been present for some time, quality of life deteriorates and the possibilities for further treatment may become limited, especially for an older person for whom heart transplantation may not be feasible. Keeping the person comfortable may eventually become more important than trying to prolong life. The person and the family members should be involved in these decisions. In fact, many studies show that people with severe heart failure and their families want to discuss these issues and that doing so does not cause undue distress. Much can be done to provide compassionate care, relieve symptoms, and maintain the person’s dignity (see Death and Dying Introduction to Death and Dying Death is an intrinsic part of life, and talking about the likely outcomes of illness, including death and dying, is an important part of health care. Doctors and patients vary in the language... read more ).

Heart failure can cause death suddenly and unexpectedly, without symptoms worsening. Consequently, when possible, people who have heart failure should prepare advance directives Advance directives People and their family members often have specific wishes and needs related to death and dying. Advance directives instruct family members and health care practitioners about a person’s decisions... read more about the type of care desired in case they are no longer able to make decisions about their care. Also, making or updating a will is important.