Abruptio placentae and other obstetric abnormalities increase the risk of morbidity or mortality for the woman, fetus, or neonate.
Abruptio placentae occurs in 0.4 to 1.5% of all pregnancies; incidence peaks at 24 to 26 weeks gestation.
Abruptio placentae may involve any degree of placental separation, from a few millimeters to complete detachment. Separation can be acute or chronic. Separation results in bleeding into the decidua basalis behind the placenta (retroplacentally). Most often, etiology is unknown.
Risk factors
Risk factors for abruptio placentae include the following:
-
Older maternal age
-
Hypertension (pregnancy-induced or chronic)
-
Placental ischemia (ischemic placental disease) manifesting as intrauterine growth restriction
-
Intra-amniotic infection (chorioamnionitis)
-
Other vascular disorders
-
Prior abruptio placentae
-
Acquired maternal thrombotic disorders
-
Tobacco use
-
Premature rupture of membranes, particularly in women who have polyhydramnios
-
Cocaine use (risk of up to 10%)
Complications
Complications of abruptio placentae include the following:
-
Maternal blood loss that may result in hemodynamic instability, with or without shock, and/or disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)
-
Fetal compromise (eg, fetal distress, death) or, if abruptio placentae is chronic, growth restriction or oligohydramnios
-
Sometimes fetomaternal transfusion and alloimmunization (eg, due to Rh sensitization).
Symptoms and Signs
Severity of symptoms and signs depends on the degree of separation and blood loss.
Acute abruptio placentae may result in bright or dark red blood exiting through the cervix (external hemorrhage). Blood may also remain behind the placenta (concealed hemorrhage). As separation continues, the uterus may be painful, tender, and irritable to palpation.
Hemorrhagic shock may occur, as may signs of DIC. Chronic abruptio placentae may cause continued or intermittent dark brown spotting.
Abruptio placentae may cause no or minimal symptoms and signs.
Diagnosis
The diagnosis of abruptio placentae is suspected if any of the following occur after the 1st trimester:
Abruptio placentae should also be considered in women who have had abdominal trauma. If bleeding occurs during middle or late pregnancy, placenta previa, which has similar symptoms, must be ruled out before pelvic examination is done; if placenta previa is present, examination may increase bleeding.
Evaluation for abruptio placentae includes the following:
-
Fetal heart monitoring
-
CBC (complete blood count)
-
Blood and Rh typing
-
PT/PTT (prothrombin time/partial thromboplastin time)
-
Serum fibrinogen and fibrin-split products (the most sensitive indicator)
-
Transabdominal or pelvic ultrasonography
-
Kleihauer-Betke test if the patient has Rh-negative blood—to calculate the dose of Rho(D) immune globulin needed
Fetal heart monitoring may detect a nonreassuring pattern or fetal death.
Transvaginal ultrasonography is necessary if placenta previa is suspected based on transabdominal ultrasonography. However, findings with either type of ultrasonography may be normal in abruptio placentae.
Treatment
Prompt cesarean delivery is usually indicated if abruptio placentae plus any of the following is present, particularly if vaginal delivery is contraindicated:
Once delivery is deemed necessary, vaginal delivery can be attempted if all of the following are present:
Labor can be carefully induced or augmented (eg, using oxytocin and/or amniotomy). Preparations for postpartum hemorrhage should be made.
Hospitalization and modified activity (modified rest) are advised if all of the following are present:
This approach ensures that mother and fetus can be closely monitored and, if needed, rapidly treated. (Modified activity involves refraining from any activity that increases intra-abdominal pressure for a long period of time—eg, women should stay off their feet most of the day. Women should be advised to refrain from sexual intercourse.
Corticosteroids should be considered (to accelerate fetal lung maturity) if gestational age is < 34 weeks. Corticosteroids may also be given if all of the following are present:
-
The pregnancy is late preterm (34 to 36 weeks).
-
The mother has not previously received any corticosteroids.
-
Risk of delivery in the late preterm period is high (1).
If bleeding resolves and maternal and fetal status remains stable, ambulation and usually hospital discharge are allowed. If bleeding continues or if status deteriorates, prompt cesarean delivery may be indicated.
Complications of abruptio placentae (eg, shock, DIC) are managed with aggressive replacement of blood and blood products.
Treatment reference
-
1. Gyamfi-Bannerman C, Thom EA, Blackwell SC, et al: Antenatal betamethasone for women at risk for late preterm delivery. N Engl J Med 374 (14):1311–1320, 2016. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1516783
Key Points
-
Bleeding in abruptio placentae may be external or concealed.
-
Sometimes abruptio placenta causes only minimal symptoms and signs.
-
Do not exclude the diagnosis because a test result (including ultrasonographic) is normal.
-
Consider prompt cesarean delivery if maternal or fetal stability is threatened or if pregnancy is at term.
-
Consider vaginal delivery if mother and fetus are stable and pregnancy is at term.
Drugs Mentioned In This Article
| Drug Name | Select Trade |
|---|---|
immune globulin |
Gammagard S/D |
betamethasone |
CELESTONE SOLUSPAN, DIPROLENE, LUXIQ |
oxytocin |
PITOCIN |
