Evaluation of Breast Disorders

History

A focused medical history in a patient with breast symptoms includes the following:

• Timing and characteristics of symptoms and any associated factors (eg, cyclic, resolved if caffeine intake is eliminated)

• Presence, type, and timing of pain

• Presence and color of nipple discharge

• Relation of symptoms to menses and pregnancy

• Presence of skin changes

• Use of hormonal contraceptives or menopausal hormone therapy

• Date and results of last mammogram or other breast imaging study

• Personal or family history of breast cancer

Breast examination

In the clinical breast examination, each breast is visually inspected for irregularities in shape (bulging, irregular contour), nipple abnormalities (inversion, retraction, discharge, crusting), and skin changes (dimpling, retraction, edema, erythema, scaling, ulceration—see figure Breast Examination: A and B for usual positions). A size difference between breasts is common and is not considered an abnormality, unless the patient reports that this is a recent change (because this may be due to breast edema).

Examining the patient in more than 1 position may help detect abnormalities. An underlying cancer is sometimes detected by having the patient press both hands against the hips or the palms together in front of the forehead (see figure Breast Examination: C and D). In these positions, the pectoral muscles are contracted, and a subtle dimpling of the skin may appear if a growing tumor has entrapped one of the Cooper ligaments (vertical cutaneous ligaments that attach to the chest wall and support the shape of the breast).

Anatomy of the Breast

Anatomy of the Breast (Front and Side Views)

Gwen Shockey/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY

Anatomy of the Breast (Side View)

Gwen Shockey/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY

Breast Lymph Nodes

Gwen Shockey/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY

Anatomy of the Breast (Front and Side Views)

Gwen Shockey/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY

Anatomy of the Breast (Side View)

Gwen Shockey/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY

Breast Lymph Nodes

Gwen Shockey/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY

Breast Examination

Positions include the patient seated or standing (A) with arms at sides; (B) with arms raised over the head, elevating the pectoral fascia and breasts; (C) with hands pressed firmly against hips; or (D) with palms pressed together in front of the forehead, contracting the pectoral muscles. (E) Palpation of axilla; arm supported as shown, relaxing the pectoral muscles. (F) Patient supine with pillow under the shoulder and with the arm raised above the head on the side being examined. (G) Palpation of breast in a circular pattern from the nipple outward.

Breast Mass (Breast Cancer)

Image

This photo shows a large, erythematous mass on the upper aspect of the right breast. The mass was later diagnosed as cancer.

DR M.A. ANSARY/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY

The breast is palpated with the patient seated and again with the patient supine, the ipsilateral arm above the head, and a pillow under the ipsilateral shoulder (see figure Breast Examination: F). Having the patient roll to one side, so that the breast on the examined side falls medially, may help differentiate breast and chest wall tenderness because the chest wall can be palpated separately from breast tissue.

Retracted Nipple

Image

This photo shows a close-up of a retracted or inverted nipple of the breast in an adult female patient. This condition may be a clue to breast cancer, or it may not be due to any underlying disease.

SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY

The breast should be palpated with the palmar surfaces of the second, third, and fourth fingers, moving systematically in a small circular pattern from the nipple to the outer edges (see figure Breast Examination: G). Precise location and size (estimated or measured with a caliper or measuring tape) of any abnormality should be noted; some clinicians use a paper or digital drawing of the breast for documentation. A written description of the consistency and mobility of the abnormality and degree to which it can be distinguished from surrounding breast tissue should also be included.

Clinicians apply pressure, moving clockwise, to the areola to check for a discharge and, if a discharge is elicited, to determine its source (eg, whether it is multiductal). If discharge is present, it is examined to determine whether it is bloody or blood-tinged. A bright light and magnifying lens can help determine whether nipple discharge is uniductal or multiductal.

The axillary and supraclavicular lymph nodes are examined. This is most easily performed with the patient seated or standing (see figure Breast Examination: E). Supporting the patient’s arm during the axillary examination allows the arm to be fully relaxed so that nodes deep within the axilla can be palpated.

Red flags

The following findings are of particular concern:

• A mass or thickening that feels distinctly different from other breast tissue

• A mass that is fixed to the skin or chest wall

• A persistent mass

• Changes in the shape of a breast or persistent breast swelling

• Peau d'orange (pitting, puckering, reddening, thickening, or dimpling in the skin of the breast)

• Scaly skin around the nipple

• Changes in the nipple (eg, retraction)

• A unilateral nipple discharge, especially if it is bloody and/or occurs spontaneously

Imaging

Imaging tests are indicated as follows:

• Screening: Testing of asymptomatic women to detect early cancer

• Diagnosis: Evaluation of breast abnormalities (eg, masses, nipple discharge)

As part of preventive health care, women should be screened for breast cancer (1). All professional societies and groups agree on this concept, although they differ on the recommended age at which to start screening and the frequency of screening.

Screening mammography guidelines for average-risk women vary, but generally, the recommendations are to begin screening between ages 40 and 50 and repeat it every 1 to 2 years until age 75 or until life expectancy is < 10 years (2). (See table Recommendations for Breast Cancer Screening Mammography in Women With Average Risk.) Screening for breast cancer is discussed in detail separately.

In mammography, low-dose radiographs of both breasts are taken in 1 (oblique) or 2 views (oblique and craniocaudal).

Breast tomosynthesis (3-dimensional mammography), used for both screening and diagnosis, is performed with digital mammography, increases the rate of cancer detection slightly, and decreases the rate of recall imaging; this test is helpful for women with dense breast tissue. However, the test exposes women to almost twice as much radiation as traditional mammography.

Diagnostic mammography is used to do the following:

• Evaluate masses, pain, and nipple discharge

• Determine size and location of a lesion and provide images of surrounding tissues and lymph nodes

• Guide biopsy

• After surgery, image the breast to check for recurrence

Diagnostic mammography requires more views than screening mammography. Views include magnified views and spot compression views, which provide better visualization of suspect areas.

Breast ultrasound can be used to do the following:

• Provide initial imaging of breast abnormalities detected in women < 30 years old

• Identify abnormal axillary nodes that may require core biopsy

• Evaluate abnormalities detected by MRI or mammography (eg, determine whether they are solid or cystic)

• Guide biopsy needle into abnormal breast tissue

Breast MRI can be used to do the following:

• Evaluate abnormal findings on breast examination or other imaging studies

• Before surgery, accurately determine tumor size, chest wall involvement, and number of tumors, especially in women with dense breast tissue

• Identify abnormal axillary lymph nodes (to help stage breast cancer)

Breast biopsy

There are a variety of breast biopsy techniques. The choice of technique is determined by the clinical context.

Fine-needle aspiration (FNA) is percutaneous insertion of a thin needle (20 to 25 gauge) to aspirate fluid from inside the mass. It is used for evaluation of breast cysts, abscesses, or seromas; other biopsy techniques are preferred for solid lesions. fine-needle aspiration is used for either diagnosis (to obtain a sample for cytologic or other evaluation) or to relieve symptoms (by removing cyst fluid). The procedure usually requires little or no anesthesia and can be guided by either palpation or imaging. Clear fluid with complete resolution of the mass indicates a benign cyst, which should be followed up as appropriate. Bloody/viscous aspirate, failure to obtain fluid, or a persistent mass should be further evaluated with image‑guided core needle biopsy or excision.

Core needle biopsy (CNB) is percutaneous biopsy using a spring‑loaded needle (typically 14 gauge) to obtain tissue cores (approximately 1 to 2.5 cm in diameter). This provides a sample for histologic evaluation for diagnosis and, if malignant, grading and receptor testing (estrogen receptors, progesterone receptors, and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2). The procedure is performed with ultrasound, mammogram (stereotactic), or MRI guidance (3). CNB is the preferred initial biopsy method for most palpable solid masses and nonpalpable lesions (detected by imaging).

Excisional biopsy is surgical removal of the entire lesion for histologic evaluation. This is typically performed for initial evaluation only if percutaneous biopsy is not feasible, is discordant with imaging findings, or when complete removal of the lesion is required for management (eg, suspected phyllodes tumor).

Evaluation references

1. 1. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Practice bulletin no. 179: Breast cancer screening. Obstet Gynecol. 130 (1), 241–243, 2017. doi: 10.1097/AOG.0000000000002151

2. 2. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Breast Cancer Screening. (Final Recommendation Statement.) April 30, 2024. Accessed June 15, 2026.

3. 3. Expert Panel on Breast Imaging, Klein KA, Kocher M, et al. ACR Appropriateness Criteria® Palpable Breast Masses: 2022 Update. J Am Coll Radiol. 2023;20(5S):S146-S163. doi:10.1016/j.jacr.2023.02.013