Arbovirus (arthropod-borne virus) is a descriptive term for a group of viruses that are transmitted to humans and/or other vertebrates through a bite of an arthropod vector. The most common arbovirus-transmitting arthropods include sandflies, mosquitoes, and ticks. The term arbovirus does not refer to a species, genus, or family and therefore is not part of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses, which is based on the nature and structure of the viral genome (1).
Families in the current classification system that have some arbovirus members include the following:
Peribunyaviridae
Flaviviridae
Orthomyxoviridae (eg, thogotoviruses)
Sedorreoviridae (eg, orbiviruses)
Togaviridae (alphaviruses)
Pearls & Pitfalls
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Arboviruses number > 250 and are distributed worldwide; at least 80 can cause human disease. Most arboviruses are transmitted by mosquitoes, but some are transmitted by ticks, sandflies, and one (Oropouche virus) is transmitted by midges. Birds are often reservoirs for arboviruses, which are transmitted by mosquitoes to horses, other domestic animals, and humans. Other reservoirs for arboviruses include arthropods and vertebrates (often rodents, monkeys, and humans).
These viruses may spread to humans from nonhuman reservoirs, but most arboviral diseases are not transmissible by humans. Exceptions include dengue, yellow fever, Zika virus infection, and chikungunya disease, which can be transmitted from person to person via mosquitoes. When human-to-human transmission occurs, it can be by blood transfusion, organ transplantation, sexual contact, and from mother to child during birth, depending on the specific virus involved.
Zika virus can be transmitted during sexual activity, whether the infected individual is asymptomatic or symptomatic. However, human-to-human transmission through casual everyday contact has not been documented.
Some infections (eg, West Nile virus infection, Colorado tick fever, dengue, Zika virus) have been shown to spread by blood transfusion or organ donation.
Most viruses associated with hemorrhagic fevers are classified in the families Arenaviridae and Filoviridae. However, some arboviruses, such as some flaviviruses (those causing yellow fever and dengue) and some Bunyaviridae (those causing Rift Valley fever, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever, Severe Fever with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome, and the Hantaviruses), can also be associated with hemorrhagic symptoms.
The Arenaviridae include lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, Lassa fever virus, Mopeia virus, Tacaribe virus, Junin virus, Lujo virus, and Machupo virus; all are transmitted by rodents and thus are not arboviruses. Lassa fever virus can be transmitted from person to person.
The Filoviridae consist of 2 genera: Ebolavirus (consisting of 5 species) and Marburgvirus (consisting of 2 species). The specific vectors of these viruses have not been confirmed, but fruit bats are the prime candidates; thus, Filoviridae are not arboviruses. Human-to-human transmission of Ebola virus and Marburg virus occurs readily.
Many arbovirus, arenavirus, and filovirus infections are asymptomatic. When symptomatic, they generally begin with a minor nonspecific flu-like illness that may evolve to one of a few syndromes (see table Arbovirus, Arenavirus, and Filovirus Diseases). These syndromes include lymphadenopathy, rashes, aseptic meningitis, encephalitis, arthralgias, arthritis, and noncardiogenic pulmonary edema. Many cause fever and bleeding tendencies (hemorrhagic fever) due to decreased synthesis of vitamin K–dependent coagulation factors, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and altered platelet function. Joint symptoms may persist beyond the acute infection (2).
Laboratory diagnosis often involves viral cultures, polymerase chain reaction, electron microscopy, and antigen and antibody detection methods where available.
Arbovirus, Arenavirus, and Filovirus Diseases
Distinguishing Symptoms | Viral Agent or Disease | Family | Vector | Major Distribution* |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Fever, malaise, headaches, myalgias | Colorado tick fever | Spinareoviridae (Coltivirus) | Ticks Dermacentor species | Western United States, western Canada |
Phlebotomus fever (sand fly fever) | Phenuiviridae (Phlebovirus) | Sand flies Phlebotomus species | Mediterranean basin, Balkans, Middle East, Pakistan, India, China, eastern Africa, Panama, Brazil | |
Venezuelan equine encephalitis | Togaviridae (Alphavirus) | Mosquitoes Culex species | Central America, South America, Florida | |
Heartland virus | Phenuiviridae (Phlebovirus) | Tick Amblyomma americanum | United States (midwestern and eastern) | |
Phenuiviridae (Phlebovirus) | Mosquitoes Several species | South Africa, eastern Africa, Egypt, Yemen, Saudi Arabia | ||
Peribunyaviridae (Simbu virus) | Biting midge Culicoides paraensis | South and Central America, Caribbean | ||
Rash plus Fever, malaise, headaches, myalgias | Dengue fever | Flaviviridae | Mosquitoes Aedes species | Southeast Asia, South Asia, West and East Africa, Oceania, Australia, South and Central America, Mexico, Caribbean, United States |
Usutu | Flaviviridae | Mosquitoes | Africa, Europe | |
Flaviviridae | Mosquitoes Aedes species | Central and South America, Mexico, Caribbean, United States, Africa, Pacific Islands, Asia | ||
Flaviviridae | Mosquitoes Culex species | Africa, Middle East, southern Europe, Russia, India, Indonesia, United States, southern Canada, Mexico, South America, Caribbean | ||
Arthralgia, rash plus Fever, malaise, headaches, myalgias | Togaviridae (Alphavirus) | Mosquitoes Aedes species | Africa, India, Pakistan, Guam, Southeast Asia, Reunion Island, New Guinea, limited areas of Europe, South and Central America, Mexico, United States, Nepal, China, Caribbean, Pacific islands | |
Bourbon virus | Orthomyxoviridae (Thogotovirus) | Tick Amblyomma americanum | United States (Midwest and Southern) | |
Togaviridae (Alphavirus) | Mosquitoes Haemagogus species | Central America, Caribbean, and South America | ||
Ross River virus | Togaviridae (Alphavirus) | Mosquitoes Aedes species, Culex species | Australia, New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Samoa, Cook Islands | |
Barmah Forest virus | Togaviridae (Alphavirus) | Mosquitoes Aedes species, Culex species | Australia | |
Sindbis virus disease (Ockelbo disease, Karelian fever) | Togaviridae (Alphavirus) | Mosquitoes Culex species | Africa, Australia, Asia, former Soviet Union, Europe (including Finland and Sweden), Oceania | |
Hemorrhagic signs§ plus Fever, malaise, headaches, myalgias | Flaviviridae | Mosquitoes Aedes species | Panama, South America, Africa | |
Flaviviridae | Mosquitoes Aedes species | Southeast Asia, South Asia, West and East Africa, Oceania, Caribbean, South and Central America, Mexico, United States | ||
Flaviviridae | Ticks Haemaphysalis species | India | ||
Flaviviridae | Ticks Dermacentor species | Russia | ||
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever | Bunyaviridae (Nairovirus) | Ticks Hyalomma species | Africa, southern and eastern Europe, India, Pakistan China, Turkey, Middle East, Russia | |
Hantaviridae(Hantavirus) | Rodent | Korea, Japan, China, Far Eastern Russia, the Balkans | ||
Seoul virus | Hantaviridae (Hantavirus) | Rodent | Nearly worldwide, including Korea, Japan, the Americas, Europe | |
Puumala virus (nephropathia epidemica) | Hantaviridae (Hantavirus) | Rodent | Scandinavia, Russia, the Balkans | |
Dobrava-Belgrade virus | Hantaviridae (Hantavirus) | Rodent | The Balkans, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Turkey | |
Amur virus | Hantaviridae (Hantavirus) | Rodent | Russia | |
Saaremaa virus | Hantaviridae (Hantavirus) | Rodent | Europe | |
Sangassou virus | Hantaviridae (Hantavirus) | Rodent | Guinea | |
Machupo virus (Bolivian hemorrhagic fever) | Arenaviridae | Rodent | Bolivia | |
Junin virus (Argentine hemorrhagic fever) | Arenaviridae | Rodent | Argentina | |
Guanarito virus (Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever) | Arenaviridae | Rodent | Venezuela | |
Arenaviridae | Rodent Mastomys species | West Africa, including Nigeria | ||
Lujo virus | Arenaviridae | Unknown | Zambia | |
Filoviridae | Human to human Monkey Bat | Zimbabwe, Kenya, Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa | ||
Filoviridae | Human to human Monkey Bat | Zaire, Sudan, Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Côte d'Ivoire, Uganda | ||
Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus | Bunyaviridae | Ticks Haemaphysalis longicornis | China, Korea, Japan | |
Noncardiogenic pulmonary edema plus Fever, malaise, headaches, myalgias | Hantavirus: Sin Nombre, Black Creek Canal, Bayou, Isla Vista, Monongahela, Leguna Negra, Maciel, Araraquara, Maripa, Juquitiba, Castel dos Sonhos, Central Plata, Andes, Andes-like viruses Hu39694, Lechiguanas, Oran, Bermejo, Choclo | Hantaviridae (Hantavirus) | Rodents | United States, Canada, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina, Chile, Panama |
Fever and central nervous system involvement | Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) | Togaviridae (Alphavirus) | Mosquitoes Culex species, Culiseta melanura | Atlantic and Gulf coasts of United States, Caribbean, upper New York, Connecticut, Indiana, Ohio, western Michigan, Wisconsin, southern Canada, Mexico |
Madariaga variant (formerly South American EEE) | Togaviridae (Alphavirus) | Mosquitoes Culex species, Culiseta melanura | Panama, Venezuela, Argentina, Haiti | |
Western equine encephalitis | Togaviridae (Alphavirus) | Mosquito Culex species | United States, Canada, Central and South America | |
Flaviviridae | Mosquitoes Culex species | Africa, Middle East, southern Europe, Russia, Germany, India, Indonesia, United States, southern Canada, Mexico, South America, Caribbean | ||
St. Louis encephalitis | Flaviviridae | Mosquitoes Culex species | United States, Caribbean, Panama, South America | |
Usutu | Flaviviridae | Mosquitoes | Africa, Europe | |
Venezuelan equine encephalitis | Togaviridae (Alphavirus) | Mosquitoes Culex species | Argentina, Brazil, northern South America, Panama, Mexico, Florida | |
La Crosse encephalitis | Peribunyaviridae | Mosquitoes Aedes species | United States, particularly the North Central states, New York, Appalachian states | |
Jamestown Canyon virus | Peribunyaviridae | Mosquitoes Aedes species | United States from the Rocky Mountains to the East Coast, southeastern Canada | |
Japanese encephalitis | Flaviviridae | Mosquitoes Culex species | Japan, Korea, China, India, Nepal, Philippines, Southeast Asia, Russia, Australia | |
Flaviviridae | Tick Ixodes species | Eastern Canada, New York, Rhode Island, New England states, Ohio, Wisconsin, Russia | ||
Murray Valley encephalitis | Flaviviridae | Mosquitoes Culex species | Australia, New Guinea | |
Flaviviridae | Ticks Haemaphysalis spinigera | India | ||
Flaviviridae | Ticks Ixodes species Haemaphysalis species | Europe, Balkans, Russia, Kyrgyzstan | ||
Arenaviridae | Rodents | Americas, Europe, Australia, Japan | ||
* Changes in climatic conditions can affect the geographic range of arboviruses by extending or contracting the habitats of their vectors. | ||||
† Rift Valley fever also causes hemorrhage, meningoencephalitis, and ocular disorders. | ||||
‡ West Nile virus also causes encephalitis. | ||||
§ The Seoul, Puumala, Dobrava, and Hantaan hantaviruses cause hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. | ||||
General references
1. International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV): https://ictv.global/taxonomy/. Virus Taxonomy: 2024 release. August 2024. Accessed June 13, 2025.
2. Suchowiecki K, Reid SP, Simon GL, Firestein GS, Chang A. Persistent Joint Pain Following Arthropod Virus Infections. Curr Rheumatol Rep 2021;23(4):26. Published 2021 Apr 13. doi:10.1007/s11926-021-00987-y
Treatment of Arbovirus, Arenavirus, and Filovirus Infections
Supportive care
Sometimes ribavirinSometimes ribavirin
Treatment for most of these infections is supportive.
In hemorrhagic fevers, bleeding may require phytonadione (In hemorrhagic fevers, bleeding may require phytonadione (vitamin K1). Transfusion of packed red blood cells or fresh frozen plasma may also be necessary. Aspirin and other NSAIDs (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) are contraindicated because of antiplatelet activity. For advanced cases of hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) may be needed.of packed red blood cells or fresh frozen plasma may also be necessary. Aspirin and other NSAIDs (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) are contraindicated because of antiplatelet activity. For advanced cases of hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) may be needed.
Ribavirin is recommended for hemorrhagic fever caused by arenaviruses or bunyaviruses including Ribavirin is recommended for hemorrhagic fever caused by arenaviruses or bunyaviruses includingLassa fever, Rift Valley fever, and Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever. Ribavirin dosing should be adjusted as needed if hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome is present.
Antiviral treatment for other syndromes has not been adequately studied. Ribavirin has not been effective in animal models of filovirus and flavivirus infections. Antiviral treatment for other syndromes has not been adequately studied. Ribavirin has not been effective in animal models of filovirus and flavivirus infections.
Two medications are available to treat Ebola virus disease caused by Zaire Ebola virus in adults and children: a combination of 3 monoclonal antibodies (atoltivimab/maftivimab/odesivimab) and a single monoclonal antibody (ansuvimab).Two medications are available to treat Ebola virus disease caused by Zaire Ebola virus in adults and children: a combination of 3 monoclonal antibodies (atoltivimab/maftivimab/odesivimab) and a single monoclonal antibody (ansuvimab).
Prevention of Arbovirus, Arenavirus, and Filovirus Infections
Vector control
Prevention of vector bites
Sometimes vaccination
Avoidance of contact with infected animals, their products, and their excrement (hantaviruses)
The abundance and diversity of arboviruses means that it is often easier and cheaper to control arbovirus infections by destroying their arthropod vectors or taking other population control measures, preventing bites, and eliminating their breeding habitats than by developing specific vaccines or medications.
Vector control and bite prevention
Diseases transmitted by mosquitoes or ticks can often be prevented by the following:
Reduce or limit infection in vector populations
Wear clothing that covers as much of the body as possible
Stay in places that have air conditioning or that use window and door screens to keep mosquitoes out
Sleep under a mosquito bed net in places that are not adequately screened or air-conditioned
Use insect repellants (eg, DEET [diethyltoluamide])Use insect repellants (eg, DEET [diethyltoluamide])
Treat clothing and gear with permethrin insecticide (do not apply directly to the skin).Treat clothing and gear with permethrin insecticide (do not apply directly to the skin).
Minimize the likelihood of exposure to the insect or tick (eg, for mosquitoes, limiting time outdoors in wet areas; for ticks, see sidebar Tick Bite Prevention)
There has been progress in reducing populations of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes through the release of sterile males or genetically modified males (1). Another approach is to limit infection among vector populations. Field trials are underway with introduction into the wild of Aedes aegypti that have been infected with Wolbachia bacteria, which blocks arbovirus midgut infection (2). These bacteria do not reduce mosquito populations. Instead, they block infection of the mosquitoes by dengue, chikungunya, and Zika viruses, thus reducing transmission of disease. The Wolbachia are transmitted to the infected mosquito's offspring, thus multiplying the effectiveness of the technique.
Diseases transmitted by rodent excreta can be prevented by the following:
Before cleaning closed spaces where mice might have been, ventilate for ≥ 15 minutes.
Wet down surfaces with a 10% bleach solution before sweeping or cleaning.
Avoid stirring up dust.
Seal sites of potential rodent entry into homes and nearby buildings.
Prevent rodent access to food.
Eliminate potential nesting sites in and around the home and other buildings.
Guidelines for cleaning up after rodents and working in areas with potential rodent excreta are available from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (3).
Because transmission of the filoviruses Ebola virus and Marburg virus is predominantly from person to person, prevention of spread requires strict quarantine and isolation measures for infected persons.
Vaccination
In the United States, there are effective vaccines only for Ebola virus (4) yellow fever virus (5), Japanese encephalitis virus (6), tick-borne encephalitis (7), and chikungunya virus. Vaccines for dengue are available in Puerto Rico only, but efficacy is only moderate and varies by dengue immune status, serotype, and patient age; studies are ongoing (8, 9).
Prevention references
1. Martín-Park A, Che-Mendoza A, Contreras-Perera Y, et al: Pilot trial using mass field-releases of sterile males produced with the incompatible and sterile insect techniques as part of integrated Aedes aegypti control in Mexico. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 16(4):e0010324, 2022. Published 2022 Apr 26. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0010324
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Mosquitoes with Wolbachia. May 14, 2024. Accessed June 16, 2025.
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: How to Clean Up After Rodents. April 8, 2024. Accessed June 16, 2025.
4. Liu CH, Hu YT, Wong SH, Lin LT: Therapeutic Strategies against Ebola Virus Infection. Viruses 14(3):579, 2022. Published 2022 Mar 11. doi:10.3390/v14030579
5. Beck AS, Barrett AD: Current status and future prospects of yellow fever vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines 14(11):1479-1492, 2015. doi:10.1586/14760584.2015.1083430
6. Hegde NR, Gore MM: Japanese encephalitis vaccines: Immunogenicity, protective efficacy, effectiveness, and impact on the burden of disease. Hum Vaccin Immunother 13(6):1-18, 2017. doi:10.1080/21645515.2017.1285472
7. Angulo FJ, Zhang P, Halsby K, et al: A systematic literature review of the effectiveness of tick-borne encephalitis vaccines in Europe. Vaccine 41(47):6914-6921, 2023. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.10.014
8. da Silveira LTC, Tura B, Santos M: Systematic review of dengue vaccine efficacy. BMC Infect Dis 19(1):750, 2019. Published 2019 Aug 28. doi:10.1186/s12879-019-4369-5
9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: About a Dengue Vaccine. May 15, 2025. Accessed July 23, 2025.
More Information
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