Intraamniotic infection typically results from an infection that ascends through the genital tract.
Risk factors
Risk factors for intraamniotic infection include the following:
Prolonged rupture of membranes (a delay of ≥ 18 to 24 hours between rupture and delivery)
Meconium-stained amniotic fluid
Presence of genital tract pathogens (eg, group B streptococci)
Multiple digital examinations during labor in women with ruptured membranes
Internal fetal or uterine monitoring
Complications
Intraamniotic infection can cause as well as result from preterm PROM or preterm delivery. This infection accounts for 50% of deliveries before 30 weeks gestation. It occurs in 33% of women who have preterm labor with intact membranes, 40% who have PROM and are having contractions when admitted, and 75% who go into labor after admission for PROM.
Fetal or neonatal complications include increased risk of the following:
Preterm delivery
Apgar score < 3
Neonatal infection (eg, sepsis Neonatal Sepsis Neonatal sepsis is invasive infection, usually bacterial, occurring during the neonatal period. Signs are multiple, nonspecific, and include diminished spontaneous activity, less vigorous sucking... read more , pneumonia Neonatal Pneumonia Neonatal pneumonia is lung infection in a neonate. Onset may be within hours of birth and part of a generalized sepsis syndrome or after 7 days and confined to the lungs. Signs may be limited... read more , meningitis Neonatal Bacterial Meningitis Neonatal bacterial meningitis is inflammation of the meninges due to bacterial invasion. Signs are those of sepsis, central nervous system irritation (eg, lethargy, seizures, vomiting, irritability... read more )
Seizures
Death
Maternal complications include increased risk of the following:
Bacteremia
Need for cesarean delivery
Uterine atony
Pelvic abscess
Wound complications
Septic shock Sepsis and Septic Shock Sepsis is a clinical syndrome of life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated response to infection. In septic shock, there is critical reduction in tissue perfusion; acute failure... read more , disseminated intravascular coagulation Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC) Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) involves abnormal, excessive generation of thrombin and fibrin in the circulating blood. During the process, increased platelet aggregation and coagulation... read more , and acute respiratory distress syndrome Acute Hypoxemic Respiratory Failure (AHRF, ARDS) Acute hypoxemic respiratory failure is defined as severe hypoxemia (PaO2 (See also Overview of Mechanical Ventilation.) Airspace filling in acute hypoxemic respiratory failure (AHRF) may result... read more 
are also potential complications but are uncommon if infection is treated.
Symptoms and Signs of Intraamniotic Infection
Intraamniotic infection typically causes fever. Other findings include maternal tachycardia, fetal tachycardia, uterine tenderness, foul-smelling amniotic fluid, and/or purulent cervical discharge. However, infection may not cause typical symptoms (ie, subclinical infection).
Diagnosis of Intraamniotic Infection
Maternal fever without other identifiable cause
Amniocentesis for suspected subclinical infection
(See also American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists’ Committee on Obstetric Practice: Committee Opinion No. 712: Intrapartum management of intraamniotic infection.)
Intraamniotic infection is suspected and diagnosed based on clinical and sometimes laboratory criteria. Findings are categorized as follows (1 Diagnosis reference Intraamniotic infection is infection of the chorion, amnion, amniotic fluid, placenta, or a combination. Infection increases risk of obstetric complications and problems in the fetus and neonate... read more ):
Isolated maternal fever: A single oral temperature of ≥ 39° C or an oral temperature of ≥ 38 to 39° C that is still present when the temperature is measured after 30 minutes (isolated maternal fever does not automatically lead to a diagnosis of infection)
Suspected intraamniotic infection based on maternal fever and clinical criteria (elevated maternal white blood cell [WBC] count, fetal tachycardia, or purulent cervical discharge)
Confirmed intraamniotic infection: Sometimes suspected intraamniotic infection is confirmed by results of amniotic fluid tests (Gram staining, culture, glucose level—see below) or histologic evidence of placental infection or inflammation
Presence of a single symptom or sign, which may have other causes, is less reliable. For example, fetal tachycardia may be due to maternal use of drugs or fetal arrhythmia. However, if intraamniotic infection is absent, heart rate returns to baseline as these conditions resolve.
Intraamniotic infection is usually confirmed after delivery through correlation with placental pathology.
Subclinical infection
Refractory preterm labor (persisting despite tocolysis) may suggest subclinical infection. If membranes rupture prematurely before term, clinicians should also consider subclinical infection so that they can determine whether induction of labor is indicated.
Amniocentesis with culture of amniotic fluid can help diagnose subclinical infection. The following fluid findings suggest infection:
Presence of any bacteria or leukocytes using Gram staining
Positive culture
Glucose level < 15 mg/dL
WBC count > 30 cells/mcL
Other diagnostic tests for subclinical infection are under study.
Diagnosis reference
1. Higgins RD, Saade G, Polin RA, et al: Evaluation and management of women and newborns with a maternal diagnosis of chorioamnionitis: Summary of a workshop. Obstet Gynecol 127 (3):426–436, 2016. doi: 10.1097/AOG.0000000000001246
Treatment of Intraamniotic Infection
Broad-spectrum antibiotics
Antipyretics
Delivery
(See also American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists’ Committee on Obstetric Practice: Committee Opinion No. 712: Intrapartum management of intraamniotic infection.)
Treatment of intraamniotic infection is recommended when
Intraamniotic infection is suspected or confirmed.
Women in labor have an isolated temperature of ≥ 39° C and no other clinical risk factors for fever.
If women have a temperature of 38 to 39° C and no risk factors for fever, treatment can be considered.
Appropriate antibiotic treatment reduces morbidity in the mother and neonate.
As soon as intraamniotic infection is diagnosed, it is treated with broad-spectrum IV antibiotics plus delivery.
A typical intrapartum antibiotic regimen consists of both of the following:
Ampicillin 2 g IV every 6 hours
Gentamicin 2 mg/kg IV (loading dose) followed by 1.5 mg/kg IV every 8 hours or gentamicin 5 mg/kg IV every 24 hours
In addition, if delivery is cesarean, one additional dose of the chosen regimen plus a dose of clindamycin 900 mg IV or metronidazole 500 mg IV can be given after the umbilical cord is clamped.
Women with a mild penicillin allergy can be given
Cefazolin plus gentamicin
Women with a severe penicillin allergy can be given one of the following:
Clindamycin (or metronidazole) plus gentamicin
Vancomycin plus gentamicin
Vancomycin should be used in women who are colonized with group B streptococci (GBS) if
GBS is resistant to clindamycin or erythromycin unless clindamycin-inducible resistance testing is negative.
Antibiotic sensitivities are not available.
How long antibiotics are given varies, depending on individual circumstances (eg, how high the fever was, when the fever last spiked in relation to delivery).
Antibiotics should not automatically be continued after delivery; use should be based on clinical findings (eg, bacteremia, prolonged fever) and on risk factors for postpartum endometritis, regardless of the delivery route. Women who have a vaginal delivery are less likely to develop endometritis and may not require postpartum antibiotics. After cesarean delivery, at least one additional dose of antibiotics is recommended.
Antipyretics, preferably acetaminophen before delivery, should be given in addition to antibiotics.
Intraamniotic infection alone is rarely an indication for cesarean delivery. Informing the neonatal care team when intraamniotic infection is suspected or confirmed and what risk factors are present is essential to optimize evaluation and treatment of the neonate.
Prevention of Intraamniotic Infection
Risk of intraamniotic infection is decreased by avoiding or minimizing digital pelvic examinations in women with preterm PROM Prelabor Rupture of Membranes (PROM) Prelabor rupture of membranes is leakage of amniotic fluid before onset of labor. Diagnosis is clinical. Delivery is recommended when gestational age is ≥ 34 weeks and is generally indicated... read more .
Broad-spectrum antibiotics are given to women with preterm PROM to prolong latency until delivery and decrease risk of infant morbidity and mortality.
Key Points
Intraamniotic infection is infection of the chorion, amnion, amniotic fluid, placenta, or a combination that increases risk of obstetric complications and problems in the fetus and neonate.
Consider the diagnosis when women have the classic symptoms of infection (eg, fever, purulent cervical discharge, uterine pain or tenderness) or when fetal or maternal tachycardia or refractory preterm labor is present.
Determine the white blood cell count, and consider analyzing and culturing amniotic fluid if women have refractory preterm labor or preterm PROM.
Treat suspected or confirmed intraamniotic infection with broad-spectrum antibiotics, antipyretics, and delivery.
Also treat women in labor if they have an isolated temperature of ≥ 39° C and no other clinical risk factors for fever.
Drugs Mentioned In This Article
| Drug Name | Select Trade |
|---|---|
ampicillin |
Principen |
gentamicin |
Garamycin, Genoptic, Genoptic SOP, Gentacidin, Gentafair, Gentak , Gentasol, Ocu-Mycin |
clindamycin |
Cleocin, Cleocin Ovules, Cleocin Pediatric, Cleocin T, CLIN, Clindacin ETZ, Clindacin-P, Clinda-Derm , Clindagel, ClindaMax, ClindaReach, Clindesse, Clindets, Evoclin, PledgaClin, XACIATO |
metronidazole |
Flagyl, Flagyl ER, Flagyl RTU, MetroCream, MetroGel, MetroGel Vaginal, MetroLotion, Noritate, NUVESSA, Nydamax, Rosadan, Rozex, Vandazole, Vitazol |
cefazolin |
Ancef, Kefzol |
vancomycin |
FIRVANQ, Vancocin, Vancocin Powder, VANCOSOL |
erythromycin |
A/T/S, Akne-mycin, E.E.S., Emcin Clear , EMGEL, E-Mycin, ERYC, Erycette, Eryderm , Erygel, Erymax, EryPed, Ery-Tab, Erythra Derm , Erythrocin, Erythrocin Lactobionate, Erythrocin Stearate, Ilosone, Ilotycin, My-E, PCE, PCE Dispertab , Romycin, Staticin, T-Stat |
acetaminophen |
7T Gummy ES, Acephen, Aceta, Actamin, Adult Pain Relief, Anacin Aspirin Free, Apra, Children's Acetaminophen, Children's Pain & Fever , Comtrex Sore Throat Relief, ED-APAP, ElixSure Fever/Pain, Feverall, Genapap, Genebs, Goody's Back & Body Pain, Infantaire, Infants' Acetaminophen, LIQUID PAIN RELIEF, Little Fevers, Little Remedies Infant Fever + Pain Reliever, Mapap, Mapap Arthritis Pain, Mapap Infants, Mapap Junior, M-PAP, Nortemp, Ofirmev, Pain & Fever , Pain and Fever , PAIN RELIEF , PAIN RELIEF Extra Strength, Panadol, PediaCare Children's Fever Reducer/Pain Reliever, PediaCare Children's Smooth Metls Fever Reducer/Pain Reliever, PediaCare Infant's Fever Reducer/Pain Reliever, Pediaphen, PHARBETOL, Plus PHARMA, Q-Pap, Q-Pap Extra Strength, Silapap, Triaminic Fever Reducer and Pain Reliever, Triaminic Infant Fever Reducer and Pain Reliever, Tylenol, Tylenol 8 Hour, Tylenol 8 Hour Arthritis Pain, Tylenol 8 Hour Muscle Aches & Pain, Tylenol Arthritis Pain, Tylenol Children's, Tylenol Children's Pain+Fever, Tylenol CrushableTablet, Tylenol Extra Strength, Tylenol Infants', Tylenol Infants Pain + Fever, Tylenol Junior Strength, Tylenol Pain + Fever, Tylenol Regular Strength, Tylenol Sore Throat, XS No Aspirin, XS Pain Reliever |
