Stridor is a high-pitched, predominantly inspiratory sound. It is most commonly associated with acute disorders, such as foreign body aspiration, but it can be due to more chronic disorders, such as tracheomalacia.
Etiology of Stridor
Most causes manifest acutely, but some patients present with chronic or recurrent symptoms (see table Some Causes of Stridor).
Acute causes are usually infectious except for foreign body and allergy.
Chronic causes are usually congenital or acquired structural abnormalities of the upper airway.
Transient or intermittent stridor can result from aspiration with acute laryngospasm or from vocal fold dysfunction.
Children
The most common causes of acute stridor in children include:
The incidence of epiglottitis as a cause of stridor in children has decreased since the introduction of the Haemophilus influenzae type B (HiB) vaccine.
Various congenital airway disorders can manifest as recurrent stridor in neonates and infants.
Adults
Common causes in adults include:
Vocal fold dysfunction (also called paradoxical vocal fold motion)
Postextubation laryngeal edema
Vocal fold edema or vocal fold paralysis
Laryngeal tumors
Allergic reactions
Vocal fold dysfunction often mimics asthma, so many patients with vocal fold dysfunction are incorrectly given medications for asthma but do not respond.
Epiglottitis is more common among adults, but adults with epiglottitis are less likely than children to have stridor (1).
Some Causes of Stridor
Cause | Suggestive Findings | Diagnostic Approach |
|---|---|---|
Acute stridor | ||
Allergic reaction (severe) | Abrupt onset after exposure to an allergen Usually accompanied by wheezing and sometimes orofacial edema; itching No fever or sore throat; cough rare | History and physical examination |
Often swelling of the face, lips, and/or tongue Often in people at risk (eg, exposure to an allergen, use of an ACE inhibitor, personal or family history of hereditary angioedema) | History and physical examination Sometimes indirect laryngoscopy | |
Bacterial tracheitis (rare) | Barking cough that is worse at night, high fever, and respiratory distress Toxic appearance (eg, lethargy, poor perfusion) | Neck radiography Sometimes direct or indirect laryngoscopy with visualization and culture of purulent tracheal secretions |
Age 6–36 months Barking cough that is worse at night, URI symptoms, no difficulty swallowing, low-grade fever | History and physical examination Sometimes anteroposterior neck radiograph showing subglottic narrowing (steeple sign) | |
More common in adults Abrupt onset of high fever, sore throat, drooling, and often respiratory distress and marked anxiety Toxic appearance (eg, lethargy, poor perfusion) | Lateral neck radiograph if the patient is stable Examination in operating room if any signs of distress | |
Sudden onset in a toddler or young child who has no URI or constitutional symptoms In adults, foreign body in upper airway typically apparent by history | Direct or indirect laryngoscopy or bronchoscopy | |
Inhalation injury (eg, due to cleaning agents, smoke inhalation) | Clinically evident recent toxic inhalation | History and physical examination Sometimes bronchoscopy |
Laryngospasm | May occur due to gastroesophageal reflux or anesthesia, or after endotracheal intubation | Direct or indirect laryngoscopy |
Postextubation complications (eg, laryngeal edema, laryngospasm, arytenoid dislocation) | Recent intubation and respiratory distress | History and physical examination Sometimes direct laryngoscopy |
Mainly in children < 4 years High fever, severe throat pain, drooling, trouble swallowing, sometimes respiratory distress Swelling that may or may not be visible in the pharynx | Lateral neck radiograph Sometimes neck CT with contrast | |
Recurrent episodes of unexplained stridor often with hoarseness, throat tightness, a choking sensation, wheezing, and/or cough | Direct laryngoscopy | |
Chronic stridor | ||
Bilateral vocal fold paralysis or dysfunction | Recent trauma (eg, during birth, thyroid or other neck surgery, intubation, or deep airway suctioning) Various neurodegenerative or neuromuscular disorders present Good voice quality but limited intensity (ie, loudness) | Direct or indirect laryngoscopy |
Congenital anomalies (numerous; laryngomalacia most common) | Usually in neonates or infants Sometimes other congenital anomalies present Sometimes trouble feeding or sleeping Sometimes worse with URI | CT of neck and chest Direct laryngoscopy Spirometry with flow-volume loops |
Congenital tracheomalacia | Chronic symptoms Stridor or barky cough during coughing, crying, or feeding May worsen in the supine position | CT or MRI Spirometry with flow-volume loops Sometimes bronchoscopy |
External compression | History of head and neck cancer or obvious mass, night sweats, and weight loss | Radiograph of neck and chest CT of neck and chest Direct or indirect laryngoscopy |
Laryngeal tumors (eg, squamous cell carcinoma, hemangiomas, small cell carcinoma) | Inspiratory or biphasic stridor that may progressively worsen as tumor enlarges | Direct or indirect laryngoscopy Spirometry with flow-volume loops |
ACE = angiotensin-converting enzyme; CT = computed tomography; MRI = magnetic resonance imaging; URI = upper respiratory infection. | ||
Etiology reference
1. Shah RK, Stocks C. Epiglottitis in the United States: national trends, variances, prognosis, and management. Laryngoscope 2010;120(6):1256-1262. doi:10.1002/lary.20921
Pathophysiology of Stridor
Stridor is produced by the rapid, turbulent flow of air through a narrowed or partially obstructed segment, most commonly of the extrathoracic upper airway. Inspiratory stridor is the most common type of stridor, where negative intraluminal pressure during inspiration promotes dynamic collapse.
The timing of stridor reflects the anatomic level and mechanics of obstruction (1):
Inspiratory stridor (with supraglottic or glottic narrowing)
Expiratory stridor (with intrathoracic or tracheobronchial obstruction)
Biphasic stridor (fixed lesions at the glottic or subglottic level)
Pathophysiology reference
1. Pfleger A, Eber E: Assessment and causes of stridor. Paediatr Respir Rev 18:64–72, 2016. doi:10.1016/j.prrv.2015.10.003
Evaluation of Stridor
History
History of present illness should first identify whether symptoms are acute or chronic and then whether they are continuous or intermittent. If acute, any symptoms of upper respiratory infection (runny nose, fever, sore throat) or allergy (itching, sneezing, facial swelling, rash, potential allergen exposure) are noted. Recent intubation or neck surgery should be clinically evident. If chronic, the age at onset (eg, since birth, since infancy, only in adulthood) and duration are determined, as well as whether symptoms are continuous or intermittent. For intermittent symptoms, precipitating or exacerbating factors (eg, position, allergen exposure, cold, anxiety, feeding, crying) are sought. Important associated symptoms in all cases include cough, pain, drooling, respiratory distress, cyanosis, and difficulty feeding.
Review of systems should seek symptoms suggesting causative disorders, including heartburn or other reflux symptoms (laryngospasm); night sweats, weight loss, and fatigue (cancer); and voice change, trouble swallowing, and recurrent aspiration (neurologic disorders).
Past medical history in children should cover perinatal history, particularly regarding need for endotracheal intubation, presence of known congenital anomalies, and vaccination history. In adults, a history of prior endotracheal intubation, tracheotomy, recurrent respiratory infections, and tobacco and alcohol use should be elicited.
Physical examination
The first step is to determine the presence and degree of respiratory distress by evaluating vital signs (including pulse oximetry) and doing a quick examination. Signs of severe distress include cyanosis, decreased level of consciousness, hypoxia (ie,oxygen saturation < 90%), air hunger, the use of accessory inspiratory muscles, and difficulty speaking. Children with epiglottitis may sit upright with arms braced on the legs or examination table, lean forward, and hyperextend the neck with the jaw thrust forward and mouth open in an effort to enhance air exchange (tripod position). Moderate distress is indicated by tachypnea, the use of accessory muscles of respiration, and intercostal retractions. If distress is severe, further examination is deferred until equipment and personnel are arranged for emergency management of the airway.
Oropharyngeal examination of a patient (particularly a child) with epiglottitis may provoke anxiety, leading to further functional obstruction and loss of the airway. Thus, if epiglottitis is suspected, a tongue depressor or other instrument should not be placed in the mouth. When suspicion is low and patients are not in significant distress, they may undergo imaging; others should be sent to the operating room for direct laryngoscopy, which should be performed by an otorhinolaryngologist with the patient under anesthesia.
If the patient’s vital signs and airway are stable and acute epiglottitis is not suspected, the oral cavity should be thoroughly examined for pooled secretions, hypertrophic tonsils, induration, erythema, or foreign bodies. The neck is palpated for masses and tracheal deviation. Careful auscultation of the nose, oropharynx, neck, and chest may help discern the location of the stridor. Infants should be examined with special attention to craniofacial morphology (looking for signs of congenital malformations), patency of the nares, and cutaneous abnormalities (such as an urticarial rash or swelling, which can occur in anaphylaxis).
Red flags
The following findings are of particular concern:
Drooling (with or without agitation)
Tripod position
Cyanosis or hypoxemia on pulse oximetry
Decreased level of consciousness
Interpretation of findings
The distinction between acute and chronic stridor is important. Other clinical findings are also often helpful (see table Some Causes of Stridor).
Acute manifestations are more likely to reflect an immediately life-threatening disorder. With these disorders, fever suggests infection. Fever plus barking cough suggests croup or, very rarely, tracheitis. Patients with croup typically have more prominent symptoms of upper respiratory infection and less of a toxic appearance. Fever without cough, particularly if accompanied by toxic appearance, sore throat, difficulty swallowing, or respiratory distress, and without evidence of pharyngitis, suggests epiglottitis and, in young children, the less common retropharyngeal abscess. Drooling and the tripod position are suggestive of epiglottitis, whereas retropharyngeal abscess may manifest with neck stiffness and inability to extend the neck.
Patients without fever or symptoms of upper respiratory infection may have an acute allergic reaction or aspirated foreign body. Acute allergic reactions that are severe enough to cause stridor usually have other manifestations of airway edema (eg, oral or facial edema, wheezing) or anaphylaxis (itching, urticaria). Foreign body obstruction of the upper airway that causes stridor is always acute but may be occult in toddlers (older children and adults can communicate the event unless there is near-complete airway obstruction, which will manifest as such, not as stridor). Cough is often present with a foreign body but rare with allergic reactions.
Chronic stridor that begins early in childhood and without a clear inciting factor suggests a congenital anomaly or an upper airway tumor. In adults, heavy smoking and alcohol use should raise suspicion of laryngeal cancer. Vocal fold paralysis usually has a clear precipitant, such as surgery or intubation, or is associated with other neurologic findings, such as muscle weakness. Patients with tracheomalacia frequently have cough productive of sputum and have a history of recurrent respiratory infections.
Pearls & Pitfalls
|
Testing
Testing should include pulse oximetry. See evaluation of stridor if epiglottitis is the suspected etiology.
Direct laryngoscopy can detect vocal fold abnormalities, structural abnormalities, and tumors, and it be performed in conjunction with securing an airway. CT of the neck and chest should be performed if there is concern about a structural abnormality, such as an upper airway tumor or tracheomalacia. Flow-volume loops obtained during pulmonary function testing can be useful in cases of non-emergent chronic and intermittent stridor to show the presence of an upper airway obstruction. Abnormal flow-volume loop findings generally require follow-up with a CT or laryngoscopy.
Treatment of Stridor
Definitive treatment of stridor should focus on treating the underlying disorder.
As a provisional measure in patients with severe distress, a mixture of helium and oxygen (heliox) improves airflow and reduces stridor in disorders of the large airways, such as postextubation laryngeal edema, croup, and laryngeal tumors. The mechanism of action is thought to be reduced flow turbulence as a result of lower density of helium compared with oxygen and nitrogen.
Nebulized racemic epinephrine (eg, 0.5 to 0.75 mL of 2.25% racemic Nebulized racemic epinephrine (eg, 0.5 to 0.75 mL of 2.25% racemicepinephrine added to 2.5 to 3 mL of normal saline) and dexamethasone may also be helpful in patients in whom airway edema is the cause.added to 2.5 to 3 mL of normal saline) and dexamethasone may also be helpful in patients in whom airway edema is the cause.
Endotracheal intubation should be used to secure the airway in patients with advanced respiratory distress, impending loss of airway, or decreased level of consciousness; if feasible, this should be performed in the operating room. When significant edema is present, endotracheal intubation can be difficult, and emergency surgical airway measures (eg, cricothyrotomy, tracheostomy) may be required.
Pearls & Pitfalls
|
Key Points
Inspiratory stridor is often a medical emergency.
Assessment of vital signs and degree of respiratory distress is the first step.
In some cases, securing the airway may be necessary before or in parallel with the physical examination.
Acute epiglottitis is uncommon in children who have received Haemophilus influenzae type B (HiB) vaccine.
Drugs Mentioned In This Article
