Volume Depletion

When fluid loss is < 5% of ECF volume (mild volume depletion), the only sign may be diminished skin turgor (best assessed at the upper torso); note that skin turgor may be low in older patients regardless of volume status. Patients may complain of thirst. Dry mucous membranes do not always correlate with volume depletion, especially in older patients and in mouth-breathers. Oliguria is typical.

When ECF volume has diminished by 5 to 10% (moderate volume depletion), orthostatic tachycardia, hypotension, or both are usually, but not always, present. Also, orthostatic changes can occur in patients without ECF volume depletion, particularly patients deconditioned or bedridden. Skin turgor may decrease further.

When fluid loss is > 10% of ECF volume (severe volume depletion), signs of shock Shock Shock is a state of organ hypoperfusion with resultant cellular dysfunction and death. Mechanisms may involve decreased circulating volume, decreased cardiac output, and vasodilation, sometimes... read more (eg, tachypnea, tachycardia, hypotension, confusion, poor capillary refill) can occur.

Volume depletion is suspected in patients at risk, most often in patients with a history of inadequate fluid intake (especially in comatose or disoriented patients), increased fluid losses, diuretic therapy, and renal or adrenal disorders.

Diagnosis is usually clinical. If accurate patient weights immediately before and after fluid loss are known, the difference is an accurate estimate of volume loss; for example, pre- and post-workout weights are sometimes used to monitor dehydration in athletes.

When the cause is obvious and easily correctable (eg, acute gastroenteritis Overview of Gastroenteritis Gastroenteritis is inflammation of the lining of the stomach and small and large intestines. Most cases are infectious, although gastroenteritis may occur after ingestion of drugs and chemical... read more in otherwise healthy patients), laboratory testing is unnecessary; otherwise, serum electrolytes, BUN, and creatinine are measured. Plasma osmolality and urine sodium, creatinine, and osmolality are measured when there is suspicion of clinically meaningful electrolyte abnormality that is not clear from results of serum tests and for patients with cardiac or renal disease. When metabolic alkalosis Metabolic Alkalosis Metabolic alkalosis is primary increase in bicarbonate (HCO3⁻) with or without compensatory increase in carbon dioxide partial pressure (Pco2); pH may be high or nearly normal. Common... read more is present, urine chloride is also measured.

Some devices can help assess volume status but are not in widespread use. Point-of-care ultrasonography evaluating inferior vena cava distension is sometimes used to assess volume status when the severity of volume loss is unclear. Also, ultrasonography of the lungs can show findings of pulmonary edema and thus fluid overload. Central venous pressure and pulmonary artery occlusion pressure are decreased in volume depletion, but measurement with an invasive device such as a central venous catheter or pulmonary artery catheter is rarely required, although it is occasionally necessary for patients for whom even small amounts of added volume may be detrimental, such as those with unstable heart failure Heart Failure (HF) Heart failure (HF) is a syndrome of ventricular dysfunction. Left ventricular (LV) failure causes shortness of breath and fatigue, and right ventricular (RV) failure causes peripheral and abdominal... read more or advanced chronic kidney disease Chronic Kidney Disease Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is long-standing, progressive deterioration of renal function. Symptoms develop slowly and in advanced stages include anorexia, nausea, vomiting, stomatitis, dysgeusia... read more .

The following concepts are helpful when interpreting urine electrolyte and osmolality values:

Volume depletion frequently increases the BUN and serum creatinine concentrations; the ratio of BUN to creatinine is often > 20:1. Values such as hematocrit often increase in volume depletion but are difficult to interpret unless baseline values are known.

The cause of volume depletion is corrected and fluids are given to replace existing volume deficits as well as any ongoing fluid losses and to provide daily fluid requirements.

Mild-to-moderate volume deficits may be replaced by increased oral intake of sodium and water when patients are conscious and not vomiting; oral rehydration regimens in children Oral Rehydration Oral fluid therapy is effective, safe, convenient, and inexpensive compared with IV therapy. Oral fluid therapy is recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics and the World Health Organization... read more are discussed elsewhere. Tube feedings can also be used if oral intake is limited or not safe for some reason.

When volume deficits are severe or when oral fluid replacement is impractical, IV 0.9% saline or a buffered electrolyte solution (eg, Ringer's lactate) is given. Both are well tolerated and safe, but Ringer’s lactate and other buffered solutions have lower chloride concentrations and may reduce development of hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis. Recent evidence seems to favor use of Ringer's lactate over saline, but the issue is not settled. Because both of these solutions distribute evenly into the extracellular space, three to four times the deficit in intravascular volume needs to be given. Typical IV regimens Intravenous Fluid Resuscitation Almost all circulatory shock states require large-volume IV fluid replacement, as does severe intravascular volume depletion (eg, due to diarrhea or heatstroke). Intravascular volume deficiency... read more are given elsewhere.