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Children's Health Issues

Care of Newborns and Infants
- Initial Care of the Newborn
- Physical Examination of the Newborn
- Newborn Screening Tests
  - More Information
- First Few Days After Birth
- Overview of Feeding of Newborns and Infants
  - Feeding Problems
- Breastfeeding
- Formula Feeding
- Starting Solid Foods in Infants
- Stools and Urine in Infants
- Sleeping in Newborns and Infants
  - Co-sleeping
Health Supervision of Well Children
- Promoting Optimal Health and Development of Children
  - Health
  - Development
- Preventive Health Care Visits in Infants
- Preventive Health Care Visits in Children
- Preventive Health Care Visits in Adolescents
- Toilet Training
  - The timing method
Symptoms in Infants and Children
- Colic
- Constipation in Children
- Cough in Children
- Crying
- Diarrhea in Children
- Fever in Infants and Children
- Rashes in Children
- Separation Anxiety and Stranger Anxiety
  - Separation anxiety
  - Stranger anxiety
- Vomiting in Infants and Children
Behavioral Problems in Children
- Overview of Behavioral Problems in Children
  - Treatment
- Breath-Holding Spells
- Eating Problems in Young Children
  - Undereating
  - Overeating
- School Avoidance
- Sleep Problems in Children
- Temper Tantrums
- Violence in Children and Adolescents
Overview of Birth Defects
- Overview of Birth Defects
Birth Defects of the Brain and Spinal Cord
- Brain and Spinal Cord Defects
Birth Defects of the Digestive Tract
- Overview of Digestive Tract Birth Defects
- Abdominal Wall Defects (Omphalocele and Gastroschisis)
- Anorectal Malformations
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
- Biliary Atresia
- Diaphragmatic Hernia
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
- Esophageal Atresia and Tracheoesophageal Fistula
- Hirschsprung Disease
- Intestinal Malrotation
Birth Defects of the Face and Limbs
- Bone and Muscle Defects
  - Facial Defects
  - Limb and Joint Defects
Birth Defects of the Heart
- Overview of Heart Defects
- Aortic Valve Stenosis
- Atrial and Ventricular Septal Defects
- Atrioventricular Septal Defects
- Coarctation of the Aorta
- Hypoplastic Left Heart Syndrome
- Patent Ductus Arteriosus
- Persistent Truncus Arteriosus
- Pulmonary Valve Stenosis
- Tetralogy of Fallot
- Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Return (TAPVR)
- Transposition of the Great Arteries
Birth Defects of the Urinary Tract and Genitals
- Overview of Kidney and Urinary Tract Birth Defects
- Bladder Defects
- Kidney Defects
- Ureter Defects
- Urethra Defects
- Genital Birth Defects
- Undescended Testes and Retractile Testes
  - Undescended testes
  - Retractile testes
Bone Disorders in Children
- Overview of Bone Disorders in Children
- Scoliosis
  - Symptoms and Diagnosis
  - Prognosis and Treatment
- Kyphosis
  - Scheuermann Disease
- Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis (SCFE)
- Legg-Calvé-Perthes Disease
- Osgood-Schlatter Disease
- Infrapatellar Tendinitis
- Köhler Bone Disease
- Sever Disease
- Chondromalacia Patellae
- Osteopetroses
  - Symptoms and Diagnosis
  - Prognosis and Treatment
Childhood Cancers
- Overview of Childhood Cancer
  - Complications of cancer treatment
  - Care team for cancer treatment
- Overview of Brain Tumors in Children
- Astrocytomas
- Ependymomas
- Medulloblastomas
- Neuroblastoma
- Retinoblastoma
- Rhabdomyosarcoma
- Wilms Tumor
Child Neglect and Abuse
- Overview of Child Neglect and Abuse
- Female Genital Mutilation
Chromosome and Gene Abnormalities
- Overview of Chromosome and Gene Disorders
- Chromosomal Deletion Syndromes
- Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)
- Trisomy 18
- Trisomy 13
- Overview of Sex Chromosome Abnormalities
- Fragile X Syndrome
- Klinefelter Syndrome
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
- Noonan Syndrome
  - Treatment
- Triple X Syndrome
- Turner Syndrome
- XYY Syndrome
Congenital Kidney Tubular Disorders
- Introduction to Congenital Kidney Tubular Disorders
- Bartter Syndrome and Gitelman Syndrome
- Cystinuria
- Hartnup Disease
- Hypophosphatemic Rickets
Cystic Fibrosis (CF)
- Cystic Fibrosis (CF)
Digestive Disorders in Children
- Introduction to Digestive Disorders in Children
- Appendicitis in Children
- Gastroenteritis in Children
- Gastroesophageal Reflux in Children
- Hypertrophic Pyloric Stenosis
- Inguinal Hernia in Children
- Hernia in Children
- Intussusception
- Meckel Diverticulum
- Peptic Ulcer in Children
- Umbilical Hernia in Children
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders in Children
- Introduction to Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders in Children
- Overview of Middle Ear Infections in Young Children
- Acute Middle Ear Infection in Children
  - Causes
  - Symptoms
    - Complications
  - Diagnosis
  - Prevention
  - Treatment
- Chronic Middle Ear Infection in Children
  - Causes
    - Complications
  - Symptoms
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
- Secretory Otitis Media in Children
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
- Enlarged Tonsils and Adenoids
  - Causes
  - Symptoms
    - Complications
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
- Hearing Impairment in Children
- Neck Masses in Children
  - Diagnosis and Treatment
- Recurrent Respiratory Papillomatosis
- Juvenile Angiofibromas
- Communication Disorders in Children
Eye Disorders in Children
- Amblyopia
- Congenital Cataract
  - Treatment
- Primary Infantile Glaucoma
- Refractive Disorders in Children
  - Treatment
  - More Information
- Retinopathy of Prematurity (ROP)
- Strabismus
Gastrointestinal (GI) and Liver Problems in Newborns
- Cholestasis in the Newborn
- Jaundice in the Newborn
- Meconium Ileus
- Meconium Plug Syndrome
- Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)

Growth and Development
- Physical Growth of Infants and Children
- Childhood Development
  - Intellectual Development
  - Emotional and Behavioral Development
    - Infants
    - Children
- Physical Growth and Sexual Maturation of Adolescents
- Adolescent Development
Hereditary Connective Tissue Disorders
- Overview of Hereditary Connective Tissue Disorders
  - Diagnosis
- Cutis Laxa
- Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome
- Marfan Syndrome
- Osteochondrodysplasias
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
- Osteogenesis Imperfecta
- Pseudoxanthoma Elasticum
- Nail-Patella Syndrome
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
Hereditary Metabolic Disorders
- Overview of Hereditary Metabolic Disorders
- Disorders of Carbohydrate Metabolism
- Disorders of Amino Acid Metabolism
- Disorders of Lipid Metabolism
Hereditary Periodic Fever Syndromes
- Overview of Hereditary Periodic Fever Syndromes
- Familial Mediterranean Fever
- PFAPA Syndrome
  - Treatment
Hormonal Disorders in Children
- Congenital Goiter
  - Causes
  - Symptoms
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
- Delayed Puberty
  - Causes
  - Symptoms
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
- Delayed Puberty
- Diabetes Mellitus (DM) in Children and Adolescents
- Early Puberty
- Male Hypogonadism in Children
- Congenital Goiter
- Hyperthyroidism in Infants and Children
- Hyperthyroidism in the Newborn
- Hypothyroidism in Infants and Children
- Hyperthyroidism in Infants and Children
- Hypothyroidism in the Newborn
- Male Hypogonadism in Children
- Short Stature in Children
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection in Children
- Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection in Children
Incontinence in Children
- Urinary Incontinence in Children
- Stool Incontinence in Children
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
    - Behavior plan
    - Maintenance
Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis (JIA)
- Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis (JIA)
Learning and Developmental Disorders
- Definition of Developmental Disorders
- Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
- Autism Spectrum Disorders
- Dyslexia
- Intellectual Disability
- Learning Disorders
- Rett Syndrome
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
Mental Health Disorders in Children and Adolescents
- Overview of Mental Health Disorders in Children
  - Diagnosis
- Childhood Schizophrenia
- Depression in Children and Adolescents
- Bipolar Disorder in Children and Adolescents (Manic-Depressive Illness)
- Suicidal Behavior in Children and Adolescents
- Conduct Disorder
- Oppositional Defiant Disorder
- Overview of Anxiety Disorders in Children
- Generalized Anxiety Disorder in Children
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
- Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Related Disorders in Children and Adolescents
- Panic Disorder in Children and Adolescents
- Agoraphobia in Children and Adolescents
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
- Separation Anxiety Disorder
- Social Anxiety Disorder in Children and Adolescents
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
- Acute and Posttraumatic Stress Disorders in Children and Adolescents
- Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders in Children
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
Bacterial Infections in Infants and Children
- Overview of Bacterial Infections in Childhood
- Occult Bacteremia
- Meningitis in Children
- Rheumatic Fever
- Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) in Children
Miscellaneous Disorders in Infants and Young Children
- Introduction to Miscellaneous Disorders in Infants and Young Children
- Teething
- Feeding Problems
- Dehydration in Children
- Failure to Thrive
  - Causes
  - Diagnosis
  - Prognosis
  - Treatment
- Kawasaki Disease
- Reye Syndrome
- Apparent Life-Threatening Event (ALTE)
  - Causes
  - Symptoms
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
- Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
Muscular Dystrophies and Related Disorders
- Introduction to Muscular Dystrophies and Related Disorders
- Duchenne and Becker Muscular Dystrophies
- Other Forms of Muscular Dystrophy
- Congenital Myopathies
- Familial Periodic Paralysis
Neurologic Disorders in Children
- Cerebral Palsy (CP)
- Febrile Seizures
- Infantile Spasms
  - Causes
  - Symptoms
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
- Neurofibromatosis
- Seizures in Children
- Sturge-Weber Syndrome
- Tourette Syndrome and Other Tic Disorders in Children and Adolescents
- Tuberous Sclerosis
- Von Hippel–Lindau Disease (VHL)
Problems in Adolescents
- Introduction to Problems in Adolescents
- Behavioral Problems in Adolescents
  - Specific Behavioral Disorders
  - Violence and Gang Membership
- Contraception and Adolescent Pregnancy
  - Contraception
  - Pregnancy
- Obesity in Adolescents
  - Causes
  - Treatment
- Overview of Psychosocial Problems in Adolescents
  - More Information
- Physical Problems in Adolescents
- School Problems in Adolescents
  - Causes
  - Diagnosis and Treatment
- Substance Use and Abuse in Adolescents
Problems in Newborns
- Overview of Problems in Newborns
- Birth Injury
- Prematurity
- Postmaturity
  - Symptoms
  - Treatment
- Small for Gestational Age (SGA)
- Large for Gestational Age (LGA)
  - Symptoms and Complications
  - Treatment
- Respiratory Distress Syndrome
  - Symptoms and Diagnosis
  - Prevention and Treatment
- Transient Tachypnea
- Meconium Aspiration Syndrome
  - Symptoms and Diagnosis
  - Treatment
- Persistent Pulmonary Hypertension
- Pneumothorax in Newborns
  - Diagnosis and Treatment
- Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia
- Apnea of Prematurity
  - Symptoms and Diagnosis
  - Treatment
- Anemia in the Newborn
  - Symptoms and Diagnosis
  - Treatment
- Polycythemia in the Newborn
- Sepsis in the Newborn
Respiratory Disorders in Infants and Children
- Introduction to Respiratory Disorders in Children
- Asthma in Children
- Bacterial Tracheitis
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
- Bronchiolitis
- Croup
- Wheezing in Infants and Young Children
- Bacterial Tracheitis
  - Diagnosis
  - Treatment
Social Issues Affecting Children and Their Families
- Overview of Social Issues Affecting Children
  - Talking With Children About Difficult Topics
- Bullying
- Illness and Death in Infants
- Chronic Health Problems in Children
- Death and Dying in Children
- Divorce and Children
- Child Care
  - Benefits of care outside the home
  - More Information
- Foster Care
  - Foster parents
  - Foster children
- Adoption
Vaccination of Children
- Childhood Vaccinations
- Childhood Vaccination Schedule
Viral Infections in Infants and Children
- Overview of Viral Infections in Children
- Viral Central Nervous System Infections in Children
- Enterovirus Infections in Children
  - Diseases Caused by Enteroviruses
- Erythema Infectiosum
- Measles
- Mumps
- Overview of Viral Respiratory Tract Infections in Children
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Infection and Human Metapneumovirus Infection
- Roseola Infantum
- Rotavirus Infection
- Rubella
- Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis (SSPE)

Pediatricians are doctors who specialize in caring for children as they grow and develop from birth through adolescence. This section covers diseases and disorders that are mostly unique to children, such as chickenpox, as well as those that may persist into adulthood, such as cystic fibrosis. Some diseases and disorders in children have defining features that are different from those seen in adults, and the treatment needed may be different. An example of this is human immunodeficiency virus infection. Diseases and disorders that affect both children and adults and that manifest similarly (for example, sore throat) are covered fully in other sections.

Children's Health IssuesSections (A-Z)

Bacterial Infections in Infants and Children

Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms (see Overview of Bacteria ). Only some bacteria cause disease in people. Other bacteria live inside of the intestinal tract, genitourinary tract, or on the skin without causing harm. Some bacteria are even thought to help keep people healthy.

Overview of Bacterial Infections in Childhood
Occult Bacteremia
Meningitis in Children
Rheumatic Fever
Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) in Children

Behavioral Problems in Children

Children acquire many skills as they grow. Some skills, such as controlling urine and stool, depend mainly on the level of maturity of the child's nerves and brain. Others, such as behaving appropriately at home and in school, are the result of a complicated interaction between the child's physical and intellectual (cognitive) development, health, temperament, and relationship with parents, teachers, and caregivers.

Overview of Behavioral Problems in Children
Breath-Holding Spells
Eating Problems in Young Children
School Avoidance
Sleep Problems in Children
Temper Tantrums
Violence in Children and Adolescents

Birth Defects of the Brain and Spinal Cord

Of the many possible defects in the brain and spinal cord, those known as neural tube defects develop within the first weeks of pregnancy. Others, such as porencephaly and hydranencephaly, develop later in pregnancy. Many brain and spinal cord defects result in visible abnormalities in the head or back.

Brain and Spinal Cord Defects

Birth Defects of the Digestive Tract

A birth defect can occur anywhere along the length of the digestive tract—in the esophagus , stomach , small intestine , large intestine , rectum , or anus . Such birth defects include the following:

Overview of Digestive Tract Birth Defects
Abdominal Wall Defects (Omphalocele and Gastroschisis)
Anorectal Malformations
Biliary Atresia
Diaphragmatic Hernia
Esophageal Atresia and Tracheoesophageal Fistula
Hirschsprung Disease
Intestinal Malrotation

Birth Defects of the Face and Limbs

Birth defects can occur in any bone or muscle, although the bones and muscles of the skull, face, spine, hips, legs, and feet are affected most often. Bones and muscles may develop incompletely. Also, structures that normally align together may be separated or misaligned. Usually, bone and muscle defects result in abnormal appearance and function of the affected part of the body. Most of these defects are repaired surgically if symptoms are troublesome. Often, the surgery is complex and involves reconstructing deformed or absent body parts.

Bone and Muscle Defects

Birth Defects of the Heart

One of 120 babies is born with a heart defect. Some are severe, but many are not. Defects may involve abnormal formation of the heart's walls or valves or of the blood vessels that enter or leave the heart.

Overview of Heart Defects
Aortic Valve Stenosis
Atrial and Ventricular Septal Defects
Atrioventricular Septal Defects
Coarctation of the Aorta
Hypoplastic Left Heart Syndrome
Patent Ductus Arteriosus
Persistent Truncus Arteriosus
Pulmonary Valve Stenosis
Tetralogy of Fallot
Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Return (TAPVR)
Transposition of the Great Arteries

Birth Defects of the Urinary Tract and Genitals

(See also Overview of the Urinary Tract .)

Overview of Kidney and Urinary Tract Birth Defects
Bladder Defects
Kidney Defects
Ureter Defects
Urethra Defects
Genital Birth Defects
Undescended Testes and Retractile Testes

Bone Disorders in Children

Children’s bones grow continually and reshape (remodel) themselves extensively. Growth proceeds from a vulnerable part of the bone called the growth plate. In remodeling, old bone tissue is gradually replaced by new bone tissue (see Bones ). Many bone disorders come from the changes that occur in a growing child’s musculoskeletal system. These disorders may get better or worsen as the child grows. Other bone disorders may be inherited or occur in childhood for no known reason.

Overview of Bone Disorders in Children
Scoliosis
Kyphosis
Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis (SCFE)
Legg-Calvé-Perthes Disease
Osgood-Schlatter Disease
Infrapatellar Tendinitis
Köhler Bone Disease
Sever Disease
Chondromalacia Patellae
Osteopetroses

Care of Newborns and Infants

The successful transition of a fetus, which is immersed in amniotic fluid and totally dependent on the placenta for nutrition and oxygen, to a crying, air-breathing baby is a source of wonder. Healthy newborns (age birth to 1 month) and infants (age 1 month to 1 year) need good care to ensure their normal development and continued health.

Initial Care of the Newborn
Physical Examination of the Newborn
Newborn Screening Tests
First Few Days After Birth
Overview of Feeding of Newborns and Infants
Breastfeeding
Formula Feeding
Starting Solid Foods in Infants
Stools and Urine in Infants
Sleeping in Newborns and Infants

Child Neglect and Abuse

Child neglect is withholding essential things from children. Child abuse is doing harmful things to children.

Overview of Child Neglect and Abuse
Female Genital Mutilation

Childhood Cancers

Cancer is rare among children. In the United States in 2016, slightly over 10,000 new cases are predicted to occur in children under 15 years of age, whereas almost 1.7 million cases are predicted to occur in adults. About 33% of childhood cancers are leukemia . Other cancers include brain tumors , lymphoma , and certain bone cancers ( osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma of bone ). About 25% of childhood cancers are brain tumors, about 8% are lymphomas, and about 4% are bone cancers.

Overview of Childhood Cancer
Overview of Brain Tumors in Children
Astrocytomas
Ependymomas
Medulloblastomas
Neuroblastoma
Retinoblastoma
Rhabdomyosarcoma
Wilms Tumor

Chromosome and Gene Abnormalities

Chromosomes are structures within cells that contain a person's genes. A gene is a segment of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and contains the code for a specific protein that functions in one or more types of cells in the body (see Genes and Chromosomes for a discussion about genetics).

Overview of Chromosome and Gene Disorders
Chromosomal Deletion Syndromes
Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)
Trisomy 18
Trisomy 13
Overview of Sex Chromosome Abnormalities
Fragile X Syndrome
Klinefelter Syndrome
Noonan Syndrome
Triple X Syndrome
Turner Syndrome
XYY Syndrome

Congenital Kidney Tubular Disorders

The kidneys filter and cleanse the blood. They also maintain the body’s balance of water , dissolved salts ( electrolytes , such as sodium , potassium , and calcium ), and nutrients in the blood.

Introduction to Congenital Kidney Tubular Disorders
Bartter Syndrome and Gitelman Syndrome
Cystinuria
Hartnup Disease
Hypophosphatemic Rickets

Cystic Fibrosis (CF)

Cystic fibrosis is a hereditary disease that causes certain glands to produce abnormal secretions, resulting in tissue and organ damage, especially in the lungs and the digestive tract.

Cystic Fibrosis (CF)

Digestive Disorders in Children

(For adults, see Appendicitis .)

Introduction to Digestive Disorders in Children
Appendicitis in Children
Gastroenteritis in Children
Gastroesophageal Reflux in Children
Hypertrophic Pyloric Stenosis
Inguinal Hernia in Children
Hernia in Children
Intussusception
Meckel Diverticulum
Peptic Ulcer in Children
Umbilical Hernia in Children

Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders in Children

Ear, nose, and throat disorders, particularly infections, are extremely common among children.

Introduction to Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders in Children
Overview of Middle Ear Infections in Young Children
Acute Middle Ear Infection in Children
Chronic Middle Ear Infection in Children
Secretory Otitis Media in Children
Enlarged Tonsils and Adenoids
Hearing Impairment in Children
Neck Masses in Children
Recurrent Respiratory Papillomatosis
Juvenile Angiofibromas
Communication Disorders in Children

Eye Disorders in Children

Amblyopia, a common cause of vision loss in children, is a decrease in vision that occurs because the brain ignores the image received from one eye. Vision loss may be permanent if the disorder is not diagnosed and treated before age 8.

Amblyopia
Congenital Cataract
Primary Infantile Glaucoma
Refractive Disorders in Children
Retinopathy of Prematurity (ROP)
Strabismus

Gastrointestinal (GI) and Liver Problems in Newborns

Cholestasis is a reduction of bile formation or bile flow. As a result, bilirubin backs up into the bloodstream ( hyperbilirubinemia ), leading to a yellow discoloration of the whites of the eyes and skin called jaundice .

Cholestasis in the Newborn
Jaundice in the Newborn
Meconium Ileus
Meconium Plug Syndrome
Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)

Growth and Development

(See also Health Supervision of the Well Child and Failure to Thrive .)

Physical Growth of Infants and Children
Childhood Development
Physical Growth and Sexual Maturation of Adolescents
Adolescent Development

Health Supervision of Well Children

Parents can help their children achieve the best possible health. The foundation for a healthy body and mind is laid in early childhood. The early years of life are crucial for health and physical, mental, and social/emotional development. If babies' physical needs are met regularly and consistently, babies quickly learn that their caretaker is a source of satisfaction, creating a firm bond of trust and attachment. Healthy babies grow into healthy children and adolescents.

Promoting Optimal Health and Development of Children
Preventive Health Care Visits in Infants
Preventive Health Care Visits in Children
Preventive Health Care Visits in Adolescents
Toilet Training

Hereditary Connective Tissue Disorders

Muscles, bones, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons are built mostly of connective tissue. Connective tissue is also found in other parts of the body, such as the skin and internal organs. Connective tissue is strong and thus able to support weight and tension.

Overview of Hereditary Connective Tissue Disorders
Cutis Laxa
Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome
Marfan Syndrome
Osteochondrodysplasias
Osteogenesis Imperfecta
Pseudoxanthoma Elasticum
Nail-Patella Syndrome

Hereditary Metabolic Disorders

Most of the foods and drinks people ingest are complex materials that the body must break down into simpler substances. This process may involve several steps. The simpler substances are then used as building blocks, which are assembled into the materials the body needs to sustain life. The process of creating these materials may also require several steps. The major building blocks are

Overview of Hereditary Metabolic Disorders
Disorders of Carbohydrate Metabolism
Disorders of Amino Acid Metabolism
Disorders of Lipid Metabolism

Hereditary Periodic Fever Syndromes

Hereditary periodic fever syndromes are hereditary disorders that periodically cause episodes of fever and other symptoms that are not due to usual childhood infections or any other obvious disorder.

Overview of Hereditary Periodic Fever Syndromes
Familial Mediterranean Fever
PFAPA Syndrome

Hormonal Disorders in Children

Congenital goiter is enlargement of the thyroid gland that is present at birth.

Congenital Goiter
Delayed Puberty
Delayed Puberty
Diabetes Mellitus (DM) in Children and Adolescents
Early Puberty
Male Hypogonadism in Children
Congenital Goiter
Hyperthyroidism in Infants and Children
Hyperthyroidism in the Newborn
Hypothyroidism in Infants and Children
Hyperthyroidism in Infants and Children
Hypothyroidism in the Newborn
Male Hypogonadism in Children
Short Stature in Children

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection in Children

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is a viral infection that progressively destroys certain white blood cells and causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection in Children

Incontinence in Children

Urinary incontinence (enuresis) is defined as the involuntary release of urine occurring two or more times per month after toilet training. Incontinence may be present

Urinary Incontinence in Children
Stool Incontinence in Children

Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis (JIA)

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis is a group of related childhood diseases that begin at or before age 16 and involve persistent or recurring inflammation of the joints similar to arthritis in adults (see Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) ).

Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis (JIA)

Learning and Developmental Disorders

Developmental disorders are better called neurodevelopmental disorders. Neurodevelopmental disorders are neurologically based conditions that can interfere with the acquisition, retention, or application of specific skills or sets of information. They may involve dysfunction in attention, memory, perception, language, problem-solving, or social interaction. These disorders may be mild and easily manageable with behavioral and educational interventions, or they may be more severe and affected children may require more support. Neurodevelopmental disorders include

Definition of Developmental Disorders
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Dyslexia
Intellectual Disability
Learning Disorders
Rett Syndrome

Mental Health Disorders in Children and Adolescents

Several important mental health disorders, such as depression (see Depression in Children and Adolescents ) and eating disorders (see Eating Disorders ), often start during childhood and adolescence. Some disorders, such as autism (see Autism Spectrum Disorders ), start only during childhood.

Overview of Mental Health Disorders in Children
Childhood Schizophrenia
Depression in Children and Adolescents
Bipolar Disorder in Children and Adolescents (Manic-Depressive Illness)
Suicidal Behavior in Children and Adolescents
Conduct Disorder
Oppositional Defiant Disorder
Overview of Anxiety Disorders in Children
Generalized Anxiety Disorder in Children
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Related Disorders in Children and Adolescents
Panic Disorder in Children and Adolescents
Agoraphobia in Children and Adolescents
Separation Anxiety Disorder
Social Anxiety Disorder in Children and Adolescents
Acute and Posttraumatic Stress Disorders in Children and Adolescents
Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders in Children

Miscellaneous Disorders in Infants and Young Children

Few children make it through their first years without minor problems. Crying, problems with feeding, rashes, and an occasional fever are common. These problems become health concerns only when they are extreme—for example, when children cry too much, when they are not growing well, or when they have high fevers that do not go away. Most childhood problems are not severe. Very rarely, families face the tragedy of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).

Introduction to Miscellaneous Disorders in Infants and Young Children
Teething
Feeding Problems
Dehydration in Children
Failure to Thrive
Kawasaki Disease
Reye Syndrome
Apparent Life-Threatening Event (ALTE)
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

Muscular Dystrophies and Related Disorders

Muscular dystrophies are a group of inherited muscle disorders in which one or more genes needed for normal muscle structure and function are defective, leading to muscle weakness (see Weakness ) of varying severity. Other inherited muscle disorders include congenital myopathies, familial periodic paralysis, and glycogen storage diseases. Glycogen storage diseases are a group of rare inherited disorders in which muscles cannot metabolize sugars normally (see Glycogen Storage Diseases ), so they build up large stores of glycogen (a starch that is formed from sugars).

Introduction to Muscular Dystrophies and Related Disorders
Duchenne and Becker Muscular Dystrophies
Other Forms of Muscular Dystrophy
Congenital Myopathies
Familial Periodic Paralysis

Neurologic Disorders in Children

Cerebral palsy refers to a group of symptoms that involve difficulty moving and muscle stiffness (spasticity). It results from brain malformations that occur before birth as the brain is developing or from brain damage that occurs before, during, or shortly after birth.

Cerebral Palsy (CP)
Febrile Seizures
Infantile Spasms
Neurofibromatosis
Seizures in Children
Sturge-Weber Syndrome
Tourette Syndrome and Other Tic Disorders in Children and Adolescents
Tuberous Sclerosis
Von Hippel–Lindau Disease (VHL)

Overview of Birth Defects

Birth defects, also called congenital anomalies, are physical abnormalities that occur before a baby is born. They are usually obvious within the first year of life.

Overview of Birth Defects

Problems in Adolescents

For most children, adolescence is a period of good physical health. The most common problems during adolescence relate to

Introduction to Problems in Adolescents
Behavioral Problems in Adolescents
Contraception and Adolescent Pregnancy
Obesity in Adolescents
Overview of Psychosocial Problems in Adolescents
Physical Problems in Adolescents
School Problems in Adolescents
Substance Use and Abuse in Adolescents

Problems in Newborns

Although most infants are delivered at full term and have no problems, some infants may have medical problems related to factors that occur before birth, such as any health problems or habits of the mother. Examples of health problems are diabetes, high blood pressure, or preeclampsia (a condition that causes high blood pressure, swelling, and the presence of protein in the urine—see see Preeclampsia and Eclampsia ) that directly affect the growth of the fetus and the health of the newborn. Habits, such as smoking, use of alcohol, and use of illicit drugs also can affect the growth of the fetus and lead to problems in the newborn. In addition to avoiding these substances, expectant mothers can improve the chances of having a healthy infant by getting care for medical problems, taking prenatal vitamins, receiving early prenatal care, and maintaining a healthy diet.

Overview of Problems in Newborns
Birth Injury
Prematurity
Postmaturity
Small for Gestational Age (SGA)
Large for Gestational Age (LGA)
Respiratory Distress Syndrome
Transient Tachypnea
Meconium Aspiration Syndrome
Persistent Pulmonary Hypertension
Pneumothorax in Newborns
Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia
Apnea of Prematurity
Anemia in the Newborn
Polycythemia in the Newborn
Sepsis in the Newborn

Respiratory Disorders in Infants and Children

(See also Asthma in adults.)

Introduction to Respiratory Disorders in Children
Asthma in Children
Bacterial Tracheitis
Bronchiolitis
Croup
Wheezing in Infants and Young Children
Bacterial Tracheitis

Social Issues Affecting Children and Their Families

To thrive, a child must experience the consistent and ongoing care by a loving, nurturing caregiver, whether that person is a parent or substitute caregiver. The security and support that such an adult can provide gives a child the self-confidence and resiliency to cope effectively with stress.

Overview of Social Issues Affecting Children
Bullying
Illness and Death in Infants
Chronic Health Problems in Children
Death and Dying in Children
Divorce and Children
Child Care
Foster Care
Adoption

Symptoms in Infants and Children

Colic refers to a specific pattern of excessive, intense crying and fussing that occurs without any apparent reason (for example, hunger, illness, or injury) in otherwise healthy infants. Colic typically begins within the first month of life, is worst when the infant is about 6 weeks of age, and disappears, often rather suddenly, by 3 to 4 months of age.

Colic
Constipation in Children
Cough in Children
Crying
Diarrhea in Children
Fever in Infants and Children
Rashes in Children
Separation Anxiety and Stranger Anxiety
Vomiting in Infants and Children

Vaccination of Children

Children should be vaccinated to protect them against infectious diseases. Vaccines contain either noninfectious fragments of bacteria or viruses or whole forms of these organisms that have been weakened so that they do not cause disease. Giving a vaccine (usually by injection) stimulates the body's immune system to defend against that disease. Vaccination produces a state of immunity to disease and is thus sometimes termed immunization.

Childhood Vaccinations
Childhood Vaccination Schedule

Viral Infections in Infants and Children

Viral infections are common among people of all ages but often seem to be concentrated in infants and children. Most childhood viral infections are not serious and include such diverse illnesses as colds with a sore throat , vomiting and diarrhea , and fever with a rash. Some viral illnesses that cause more serious disease, such as measles , are less common now due to widespread immunization. Several types of viral infections that children can acquire are discussed in the chapter on adult viral infections (see Overview of Viral Infections ).

Overview of Viral Infections in Children
Viral Central Nervous System Infections in Children
Enterovirus Infections in Children
Erythema Infectiosum
Measles
Mumps
Overview of Viral Respiratory Tract Infections in Children
Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Infection and Human Metapneumovirus Infection
Roseola Infantum
Rotavirus Infection
Rubella
Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis (SSPE)

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Also of Interest

Test your knowledge

Which of the following is recommended to help overcome a child's resistance to going to bed?

Let the child sleep in the parents' bed until the child feels more secure Let the child sleep in the parents' bed until the child feels more secure Read extra stories and sing extra songs until the child falls asleep Read extra stories and sing extra songs until the child falls asleep Sit quietly in the child's room until the child falls asleep Sit quietly in the child's room until the child falls asleep Sit quietly in the hallway in sight of the child and make sure the child stays in bed Sit quietly in the hallway in sight of the child and make sure the child stays in bed