Oral Contraceptives

Although oral contraceptives may have some adverse effects, the overall risk of these effects is small.

OCs may cause breakthrough bleeding (which may resolve with time or when the estrogen dose is increased) or amenorrhea; amenorrhea, if not acceptable, may resolve when the progestin dose is decreased.

In some women, ovulation remains inhibited for a few months after they stop taking OCs, but there is no long-term effect on fertility. OCs do not adversely affect the outcome of pregnancy when conception occurs during or after their use.

Estrogens increase aldosterone production and cause sodium retention, which can cause dose-related, reversible increases in blood pressure (BP) and in weight (up to about 2 kg). Weight gain may be accompanied by bloating and edema.

Most progestins used in OCs are related to 19-nortestosterone and are androgenic. Norgestimate, etonogestrel, and desogestrel are less androgenic than levonorgestrel, norethindrone, norethindrone acetate, and ethynodiol diacetate. Androgenic effects may include acne, nervousness, and an anabolic effect resulting in weight gain. If a woman gains > 4.5 kg/year, a less androgenic OC should be used. Newer 4th-generation antiandrogenic progestins include dienogest and drospirenone (related to spironolactone, a diuretic).

The incidence of deep venous thrombosis Deep Venous Thrombosis (DVT) Deep venous thrombosis (DVT) is clotting of blood in a deep vein of an extremity (usually calf or thigh) or the pelvis. DVT is the primary cause of pulmonary embolism. DVT results from conditions... read more and thromboembolism Overview of Thrombotic Disorders In healthy people, homeostatic balance exists between procoagulant (clotting) forces and anticoagulant and fibrinolytic forces. Numerous genetic, acquired, and environmental factors can tip... read more (eg, pulmonary embolism) increases as the estrogen dose is increased. With OCs that contain 10 to 35 mcg of estrogen, risk is 2 to 4 times the risk at baseline. However, this increased risk is still much lower than the risk associated with pregnancy. A wide variety of progestins in combination OCs may also affect this risk. OCs that contain levonorgestrel appear to lower this risk, and OCs that contain drospirenone or desogestrel may increase it. Risk is probably increased because production of clotting factors in the liver and platelet adhesion are increased. If deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism is suspected in a woman taking OCs, OCs should be stopped immediately until results of diagnostic tests can confirm or exclude the diagnosis. Also, OCs should be stopped at least 1 month before any major surgery that requires immobilization for a long time and should not be taken again until 1 month afterward. Women with a family history of idiopathic venous thromboembolism or a known thrombotic disorder Overview of Thrombotic Disorders In healthy people, homeostatic balance exists between procoagulant (clotting) forces and anticoagulant and fibrinolytic forces. Numerous genetic, acquired, and environmental factors can tip... read more should not use OCs that contain estrogen.

Study results vary regarding use of OCs and risk of breast cancer Breast Cancer Breast cancers are most often epithelial tumors involving the ducts or lobules. Most patients present with an asymptomatic mass discovered during examination or screening mammography. Diagnosis... read more . Some studies have found a small increased risk in current or recent users (1).

Risk of cervical cancer Cervical Cancer Cervical cancer is usually a squamous cell carcinoma; less often, it is an adenocarcinoma. The cause of most cervical cancers is human papillomavirus infection. Cervical neoplasia is often asymptomatic... read more is slightly increased in women who have used OCs for > 5 years, but this risk decreases to baseline 10 years after stopping OCs. Whether this risk is related to a hormonal effect or to behaviors (ie, not using barrier contraception) is unclear.

Central nervous system effects of OCs may include nausea, vomiting, headache, depression, and sleep disturbances. Although increased stroke Ischemic Stroke Ischemic stroke is sudden neurologic deficits that result from focal cerebral ischemia associated with permanent brain infarction (eg, positive results on diffusion-weighted MRI). Common causes... read more risk has been attributed to OCs, low-dose combination OCs do not appear to increase risk of stroke in healthy, normotensive, nonsmoking women. Nonetheless, if focal neurologic symptoms, aphasia, or other symptoms that may herald stroke develop, OCs should be stopped immediately. Smokers over 35 should not use contraceptives that contain estrogen because of the increased risk of myocardial infarction and/or stroke.

Although progestins may cause reversible, dose-related insulin resistance, use of OCs with a low progestin dose rarely results in hyperglycemia.

Serum high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels may decrease when OCs with a high progestin dose are used but usually increase when OCs with low progestin and estrogen doses are used. The estrogen in OCs increases triglyceride levels and can exacerbate preexisting hypertriglyceridemia. Most alterations in serum levels of other metabolites are not clinically significant. Thyroxine-binding globulin capacity may increase in OC users; however, free thyroxine levels, thyroid-stimulating hormone levels, and thyroid function are not affected.

Levels of pyridoxine, folate, B complex vitamins, ascorbic acid, calcium, manganese, and zinc decrease in OC users; vitamin A levels increase. None of these effects is clinically significant, and vitamin supplementation is not advised as an adjunct to OC use.

If cholestasis Primary Biliary Cholangitis (PBC) Primary biliary cholangitis (PBC; formerly known as primary biliary cirrhosis) is an autoimmune liver disorder characterized by the progressive destruction of intrahepatic bile ducts, leading... read more or jaundice Jaundice Jaundice is a yellowish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes caused by hyperbilirubinemia. Jaundice becomes visible when the bilirubin level is about 2 to 3 mg/dL (34 to 51 micromol/L)... read more developed when women previously used OCs, they should not take OCs again. Women who have had cholestasis of pregnancy (idiopathic recurrent jaundice of pregnancy) may become jaundiced if they take OCs, and OCs should be used cautiously in these women.

Risk of developing gallstones does not appear to be increased by use of low-dose OCs.

Rarely, benign hepatic adenomas Hepatocellular Adenoma Benign liver tumors are relatively common. Most are asymptomatic, but some cause hepatomegaly, right upper quadrant discomfort, or intraperitoneal hemorrhage. Most are detected incidentally... read more , which can spontaneously rupture, develop. Incidence increases as duration of use and OC dose increase; adenomas usually regress spontaneously after OCs are stopped.

Melasma Drug Interactions Oral contraceptives (OCs) mimic ovarian hormones. Once ingested, they inhibit the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) by the hypothalamus, thus inhibiting the release of the pituitary... read more occurs in some women; it is accentuated by sunlight and disappears slowly after OCs are stopped. Because treatment is difficult, OCs are stopped when melasma first appears. OCs do not increase risk of melanoma.

OCs have some very important health benefits. High- and low-dose combination OCs decrease the risk of

They also decrease the risk of functional ovarian cysts Functional ovarian cysts Benign ovarian masses include functional cysts (eg, corpus luteum cysts) and neoplasms (eg, benign teratomas). Most are asymptomatic; some cause pelvic pain. Evaluation includes pelvic examination... read more , benign ovarian tumors Benign Ovarian Masses Benign ovarian masses include functional cysts (eg, corpus luteum cysts) and neoplasms (eg, benign teratomas). Most are asymptomatic; some cause pelvic pain. Evaluation includes pelvic examination... read more , abnormal uterine bleeding Abnormal Uterine Bleeding Abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB) in patients of reproductive age is a bleeding pattern that is not consistent with normal menstrual cycle parameters (frequency, regularity, duration, and volume)... read more due to ovulatory dysfunction, dysmenorrhea Dysmenorrhea Dysmenorrhea is uterine pain around the time of menses. Pain may occur with menses or precede menses by 1 to 3 days. Pain tends to peak 24 hours after onset of menses and subside after 2 to... read more , premenstrual dysphoric disorder Premenstrual dysphoric disorder Depressive disorders are characterized by sadness severe enough or persistent enough to interfere with function and often by decreased interest or pleasure in activities. Exact cause is unknown... read more , iron deficiency anemia Iron Deficiency Anemia Iron deficiency is the most common cause of anemia and usually results from blood loss; malabsorption, such as with celiac disease, is a much less common cause. Symptoms are usually nonspecific... read more , and benign breast disorders Evaluation of Breast Disorders Breast symptoms (eg, masses, nipple discharge, pain) are common, accounting for > 15 million physician visits/year. Although > 90% of symptoms have benign causes, breast cancer is always... read more . Salpingitis Acute salpingitis Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is a polymicrobial infection of the upper female genital tract: the cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries; abscess may occur. PID may be caused by sexually... read more , which can impairs fertility, occur less frequently in OC users.

Although OCs can slow the metabolism of certain drugs (eg, meperidine), these effects are not clinically important.

Some drugs can induce liver enzymes (eg, cytochrome P-450 enzymes) that accelerate transformation of OCs to less biologically active metabolites. Women who take these drugs should not be given OCs concurrently unless other contraceptive methods are unavailable or unacceptable. These drugs include certain antiseizure drugs (most commonly phenytoin, carbamazepine, barbiturates, primidone, topiramate, and oxcarbazepine), ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitors, rifampin, and rifabutin. Lamotrigine should not be used with OCs because OCs can decrease lamotrigine levels and affect seizure control.

Before oral contraceptives are started, clinicians should take a thorough medical, social, and family history to check for potential contraindications to use. Blood pressure (BP) is measured, and a urine pregnancy test is done. OCs should not be prescribed unless BP is normal and results of the urine pregnancy test are negative. A physical examination, although often done when OCs are started, is not required. However, a physical examination is recommended within 1 year of OC initiation. A follow-up visit in 3 months may be useful for discussing potential adverse effects and for rechecking BP. OCs can be prescribed for 13 months at a time.

OCs may be started on the same day as the contraceptive visit (often called the quick-start method). The day of the week and time in the menstrual cycle are not important to when OCs are started. However, if OCs are started > 5 days after the first day of menses, women should use a backup contraceptive method (eg, condoms) for the first 7 days of OC use.

Progestin-only OCs must be taken every day, at the same time every day. If > 27 hours elapse between doses of a progestin-only OC, women should use a backup contraceptive method for 7 days in addition to taking the OC daily.

For combination OCs, timing is not as stringent. However, if combined OC users miss taking a pill one day, they are advised to take 2 pills the next day. If they forget to take a pill for 2 days, they should resume taking the OC each day and should use a backup contraceptive method for 7 days. If they forget to take a pill for 2 days and have had unprotected sex in the 5 days before forgetting to take the pill, they can consider taking emergency contraception.

The timing for starting combination OCs after pregnancy varies:

In 98% of women who are exclusively breastfeeding and in whom menses does not resume, pregnancy does not occur for 6 months postpartum even when no contraception is used. However, these women are often advised to start using contraception within 3 months after delivery.

Progestin-only OCs may be used immediately postpartum.

If women have a history of a liver disorder, tests to confirm normal liver function should be done before OCs are prescribed. Women at risk of diabetes (eg, those who have a family history, who have had gestational diabetes, who have had high-birth-weight infants, or who have physical signs of insulin resistance such as acanthosis nigricans) require plasma glucose screening and a complete serum lipid profile annually. Use of low-dose OCs is not contraindicated by abnormal glucose or lipid test results, except for triglycerides > 250 mg/dL (2.8 mmol/L). Most women with diabetes mellitus may take combination OCs; exceptions are those who have vascular complications (eg, neuropathy, retinopathy, nephropathy) and those who have had diabetes for > 20 years.