Bacterial Urinary Tract Infections

Risk factors for development of UTI in women include the following:

Risk factors for UTI in males include the following:

Even use of spermicide-coated condoms increases risk of UTI in women. The increased risk of UTI in women using antibiotics or spermicides probably occurs because of alterations in vaginal flora that allow overgrowth of Escherichia coli. In older women, soiling of the perineum due to fecal incontinence Fecal Incontinence Fecal incontinence is involuntary defecation. Diagnosis is clinical. Treatment is a bowel management program and perineal exercises, but sometimes colostomy is needed. (See also Evaluation of... read more increases risk.

Anatomic, structural, and functional abnormalities are risk factors for UTI. A common consequence of anatomic abnormality is vesicoureteral reflux Vesicoureteral Reflux (VUR) Vesicoureteral reflux is retrograde passage of urine from the bladder back into the ureter and sometimes also into the renal collecting system, depending on severity. Reflux predisposes to urinary... read more (VUR), which is present in 30 to 45% of young children with symptomatic UTI Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) in Children Urinary tract infection (UTI) is defined by ≥ 5 × 10⁴ colonies/mL in a catheterized urine specimen or, in older children, by repeated voided specimens with ≥ 10⁵ colonies/mL... read more . VUR is usually caused by a congenital defect that results in incompetence of the ureterovesical valve. VUR can also be acquired in patients with a flaccid bladder due to spinal cord injury or after urinary tract surgery. Other anatomic abnormalities predisposing to UTI include urethral valves (a congenital obstructive abnormality), delayed bladder neck maturation, bladder diverticulum, and urethral duplications (see Overview of Congenital Genitourinary Anomalies Overview of Congenital Genitourinary Anomalies Congenital anatomic anomalies of the genitourinary tract are more common than those of any other organ system. Urinary tract anomalies predispose patients to many complications, including urinary... read more ).

Structural and functional urinary tract abnormalities that predispose to UTI usually involve obstruction of urine flow and poor bladder emptying. Urine flow can be compromised by calculi Urinary Calculi Urinary calculi are solid particles in the urinary system. They may cause pain, nausea, vomiting, hematuria, and, possibly, chills and fever due to secondary infection. Diagnosis is based on... read more and tumors. Bladder emptying can be impaired by neurogenic dysfunction Neurogenic Bladder Neurogenic bladder is bladder dysfunction (flaccid or spastic) caused by neurologic damage. Symptoms can include overflow incontinence, frequency, urgency, urge incontinence, and retention.... read more , pregnancy, uterine prolapse Uterine and Apical Prolapse Uterine prolapse is descent of the uterus toward or past the introitus. Apical prolapse is descent of the vaginal vault or vaginal cuff after hysterectomy. Symptoms include vaginal pressure... read more , cystocele Anterior and Posterior Vaginal Wall Prolapse Anterior and posterior vaginal wall prolapse involve protrusion of an organ into the vaginal canal. Anterior vaginal wall prolapse is commonly referred to as cystocele or urethrocele (when the... read more , and prostatic enlargement Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is nonmalignant adenomatous overgrowth of the periurethral prostate gland. Symptoms are those of bladder outlet obstruction—weak stream, hesitancy, urinary... read more . UTI caused by congenital factors manifests most commonly during childhood. Most other risk factors are more common in older patients.

Other risk factors for UTI include instrumentation (eg, bladder catheterization Bladder Catheterization Bladder catheterization is used to do the following: Obtain urine for examination Measure residual urine volume Relieve urinary retention or incontinence Deliver radiopaque contrast agents or... read more , stent placement, cystoscopy Cystoscopy Cystoscopy is insertion of a rigid or flexible fiberoptic instrument into the bladder. Indications include the following: Helping diagnose urologic disorders (eg, bladder tumors, calculi in... read more ) and recent surgery.

Infection of the urethra with bacteria (or with protozoa, viruses, or fungi) occurs when organisms that gain access to it acutely or chronically colonize the numerous periurethral glands in the bulbous and pendulous portions of the male urethra and in the entire female urethra. The sexually transmitted pathogens Chlamydia trachomatis (see Chlamydial, Mycoplasmal, and Ureaplasmal Infections Chlamydia and Mycoplasmal Mucosal Infections Sexually transmitted urethritis, cervicitis, proctitis, and pharyngitis (that are not due to gonorrhea) are caused predominantly by chlamydiae and less frequently by mycoplasmas. Chlamydiae... read more ), Neisseria gonorrhoeae (see Gonorrhea Gonorrhea Gonorrhea is caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae. It typically infects epithelia of the urethra, cervix, rectum, pharynx, or conjunctivae, causing irritation or pain and purulent... read more ), Trichomonas vaginalis (see Trichomoniasis Trichomoniasis Trichomoniasis is infection of the vagina or male genital tract with Trichomonas vaginalis. It can be asymptomatic or cause urethritis, vaginitis, or occasionally cystitis, epididymitis... read more ), and herpes simplex virus Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) Infections Herpes simplex viruses (human herpesviruses types 1 and 2) commonly cause recurrent infection affecting the skin, mouth, lips, eyes, and genitals. Common severe infections include encephalitis... read more are common causes in both sexes.

Cystitis is infection of the bladder. It is common in women, in whom cases of uncomplicated cystitis are usually preceded by sexual intercourse (honeymoon cystitis). In men, bacterial infection of the bladder is usually complicated and usually results from ascending infection from the urethra or prostate or is secondary to urethral instrumentation. The most common cause of recurrent cystitis in men is chronic bacterial prostatitis Prostatitis Prostatitis refers to a disparate group of prostate disorders that manifests with a combination of predominantly irritative or obstructive urinary symptoms and perineal pain. Some cases result... read more .

Acute urethral syndrome, which occurs in women, is a syndrome involving dysuria Dysuria Dysuria is painful or uncomfortable urination, typically a sharp, burning sensation. Some disorders cause a painful ache over the bladder or perineum. Dysuria is an extremely common symptom... read more , frequency Urinary Frequency Urinary frequency is the need to urinate many times during the day, at night (nocturia), or both but in normal or less-than-normal volumes. Frequency may be accompanied by a sensation of an... read more , and pyuria (dysuria-pyuria syndrome), which thus resembles cystitis. However, in acute urethral syndrome (unlike in cystitis), routine urine cultures are either negative or show colony counts that are lower than the traditional criteria for diagnosis of bacterial cystitis. Urethritis Urethritis Bacterial urinary tract infections (UTIs) can involve the urethra, prostate, bladder, or kidneys. Symptoms may be absent or include urinary frequency, urgency, dysuria, lower abdominal pain... read more is a possible cause because causative organisms include Chlamydia trachomatis and Ureaplasma urealyticum, which are not detected on routine urine culture.

Noninfectious causes have been proposed, but supporting evidence is not conclusive, and most noninfectious causes usually cause little or no pyuria. Possible noninfectious causes include anatomic abnormalities (eg, urethral stenosis), physiologic abnormalities (eg, pelvic floor muscle dysfunction), hormonal imbalances (eg, atrophic urethritis), localized trauma, gastrointestinal system symptoms, and inflammation.

Asymptomatic bacteriuria Urine testing is absence of UTI signs or symptoms in a patient whose urine culture satisfies criteria for UTI. Pyuria may or may not be present. Because it is asymptomatic, such bacteriuria is found mainly when high-risk patients are screened or when urine culture is done for other reasons.

Screening patients for asymptomatic bacteriuria is indicated for those at risk of complications if the bacteriuria is untreated. Such patients include

Certain patients (eg, postmenopausal women; patients with controlled diabetes; patients with ongoing use of urinary tract foreign objects such as stents, nephrostomy tubes, and indwelling catheters Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infections A catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI) is a urinary tract infection (UTI) in which the positive culture was taken when an indwelling urinary catheter had been in place for >... read more ) often have persistent asymptomatic bacteriuria and sometimes pyuria. If they are asymptomatic, these patients should not be screened routinely, because they are at low risk. In patients with indwelling catheters, treatment of asymptomatic bacteriuria often fails to clear the bacteriuria and only leads to development of antibiotic-resistant organisms.

Pyelonephritis is bacterial infection of the kidney parenchyma. The term should not be used to describe tubulointerstitial nephropathy Tubulointerstitial Nephritis Tubulointerstitial nephritis is primary injury to renal tubules and interstitium resulting in decreased renal function. The acute form is most often due to allergic drug reactions or to infections... read more unless infection is documented. In women, about 20% of community-acquired bacteremias Bacteremia Bacteremia is the presence of bacteria in the bloodstream. It can occur spontaneously, during certain tissue infections, with use of indwelling genitourinary or IV catheters, or after dental... read more are due to pyelonephritis. Pyelonephritis is uncommon in men with a normal urinary tract.

In 95% of cases of pyelonephritis, the cause is ascension of bacteria through the urinary tract. Although obstruction (eg, strictures Urethral Stricture Urethral stricture is scarring that obstructs the anterior urethral lumen. Urethral stricture can be Congenital Acquired Anything that damages the urethral epithelium or corpus spongiosum can... read more , calculi Urinary Calculi Urinary calculi are solid particles in the urinary system. They may cause pain, nausea, vomiting, hematuria, and, possibly, chills and fever due to secondary infection. Diagnosis is based on... read more , tumors, neurogenic bladder Neurogenic Bladder Neurogenic bladder is bladder dysfunction (flaccid or spastic) caused by neurologic damage. Symptoms can include overflow incontinence, frequency, urgency, urge incontinence, and retention.... read more , VUR Vesicoureteral Reflux (VUR) Vesicoureteral reflux is retrograde passage of urine from the bladder back into the ureter and sometimes also into the renal collecting system, depending on severity. Reflux predisposes to urinary... read more ) predisposes to pyelonephritis, most women with pyelonephritis have no demonstrable functional or anatomic defects. In men, pyelonephritis is always due to some functional or anatomic defect. Cystitis Cystitis Bacterial urinary tract infections (UTIs) can involve the urethra, prostate, bladder, or kidneys. Symptoms may be absent or include urinary frequency, urgency, dysuria, lower abdominal pain... read more alone or anatomic defects may cause reflux. The risk of bacterial ascension is greatly enhanced when ureteral peristalsis is inhibited (eg, during pregnancy, by obstruction, by endotoxins of gram-negative bacteria). Pyelonephritis is common in young girls and in pregnant women after bladder catheterization Bladder Catheterization Bladder catheterization is used to do the following: Obtain urine for examination Measure residual urine volume Relieve urinary retention or incontinence Deliver radiopaque contrast agents or... read more .

Pyelonephritis not caused by bacterial ascension is caused by hematogenous spread, which is particularly characteristic of virulent organisms such as S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, Salmonella species, and Candida species.

The affected kidney is usually enlarged because of inflammatory polymorphonuclear neutrophils and edema. Infection is focal and patchy, beginning in the pelvis and medulla and extending into the cortex as an enlarging wedge. Cells mediating chronic inflammation appear within a few days, and medullary and subcortical abscesses may develop. Normal parenchymal tissue between foci of infection is common.

Papillary necrosis may be evident in acute pyelonephritis associated with diabetes, obstruction, sickle cell disease Sickle Cell Disease Sickle cell disease (a hemoglobinopathy) causes a chronic hemolytic anemia occurring almost exclusively in people with African ancestry. It is caused by homozygous inheritance of genes for hemoglobin... read more , pyelonephritis in renal transplants, pyelonephritis due to candidiasis Candidiasis Candidiasis is infection by Candida species (most often C. albicans), manifested by mucocutaneous lesions, fungemia, and sometimes focal infection of multiple sites. Symptoms depend... read more , or analgesic nephropathy Analgesic Nephropathy Analgesic nephropathy is chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis caused by cumulative lifetime use of large amounts (eg, ≥ 2 kg) of certain analgesics. Patients present with kidney injury and usually... read more .

Although acute pyelonephritis is frequently associated with renal scarring in children, similar scarring in adults is not detectable in the absence of reflux or obstruction.

If a sexually transmitted infection Overview of Sexually Transmitted Infections Sexually transmitted infection (STI) refers to infection with a pathogen that is transmitted through blood, semen, vaginal fluids, or other body fluids during oral, anal, or genital sex with... read more (STI) is suspected, a urethral swab for STI testing is obtained prior to voiding. Urine collection is then by clean-catch or catheterization.

To obtain a clean-catch, midstream specimen, the urethral opening is washed with a mild, nonfoaming disinfectant and air dried. Contact of the urinary stream with the mucosa should be minimized by spreading the labia in women and by pulling back the foreskin in uncircumcised men. The first 5 mL of urine is not captured; the next 5 to 10 mL is collected in a sterile container.

A specimen obtained by catheterization is preferable in older women (who typically have difficulty obtaining a clean-catch specimen) and in women with vaginal bleeding or discharge. Many clinicians also use catheterization to obtain a specimen if evaluation includes a pelvic examination. Diagnosis in patients with indwelling catheters is discussed elsewhere (see Diagnosis of Catheter-Associated UTIs Diagnosis A catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI) is a urinary tract infection (UTI) in which the positive culture was taken when an indwelling urinary catheter had been in place for >... read more ).

Testing, particularly culturing, should be done within 2 hours of specimen collection; if not, the sample should be refrigerated.

Microscopic examination of urine is useful but not definitive. Pyuria is defined as ≥ 8 white blood cells (WBCs)/mcL of uncentrifuged urine, which corresponds to 2 to 5 WBCs/high-power field in spun sediment. Most truly infected patients have > 10 WBCs/mcL. The presence of bacteria in the absence of pyuria, especially when several strains are found, is usually due to contamination during sampling. Microscopic hematuria occurs in up to 50% of patients, but gross hematuria is uncommon. WBC casts, which may require special stains to differentiate from renal tubular casts, indicate only an inflammatory reaction; they can be present in pyelonephritis Acute pyelonephritis Bacterial urinary tract infections (UTIs) can involve the urethra, prostate, bladder, or kidneys. Symptoms may be absent or include urinary frequency, urgency, dysuria, lower abdominal pain... read more , glomerulonephritis Overview of Nephritic Syndrome Nephritic syndrome is defined by hematuria, variable degrees of proteinuria, usually dysmorphic red blood cells (RBCs), and often RBC casts on microscopic examination of urinary sediment. Often... read more , and noninfective tubulointerstitial nephritis Tubulointerstitial Nephritis Tubulointerstitial nephritis is primary injury to renal tubules and interstitium resulting in decreased renal function. The acute form is most often due to allergic drug reactions or to infections... read more .

Pyuria in the absence of bacteriuria and of urinary tract infection (UTI) is possible, for example, if patients have nephrolithiasis Urinary Calculi Urinary calculi are solid particles in the urinary system. They may cause pain, nausea, vomiting, hematuria, and, possibly, chills and fever due to secondary infection. Diagnosis is based on... read more , a uroepithelial tumor, appendicitis Appendicitis Appendicitis is acute inflammation of the vermiform appendix, typically resulting in abdominal pain, anorexia, and abdominal tenderness. Diagnosis is clinical, often supplemented by CT or ultrasonography... read more , or inflammatory bowel disease Overview of Inflammatory Bowel Disease Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which includes Crohn disease and ulcerative colitis, is a relapsing and remitting condition characterized by chronic inflammation at various sites in the gastrointestinal... read more or if the sample is contaminated by vaginal WBCs. Women who have dysuria Dysuria Dysuria is painful or uncomfortable urination, typically a sharp, burning sensation. Some disorders cause a painful ache over the bladder or perineum. Dysuria is an extremely common symptom... read more and pyuria without significant bacteriuria may have interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome.

Dipstick tests also are commonly used. A positive nitrite test on a freshly voided specimen (bacterial replication in the container renders results unreliable if the specimen is not tested rapidly) is highly specific for UTI, but the test is not very sensitive. The leukocyte esterase test is very specific for the presence of > 10 WBCs/mcL and is fairly sensitive. In adult women with uncomplicated UTI with typical symptoms, most clinicians consider positive microscopic and dipstick tests sufficient; in these cases, given the likely pathogens, cultures are unlikely to change treatment but add significant expense.

Cultures are recommended in patients whose characteristics and symptoms suggest complicated UTI or an indication for treatment of bacteriuria. Common examples include the following:

Samples containing large numbers of epithelial cells are contaminated and unlikely to be helpful. An uncontaminated specimen must be obtained for culture. Culture of a morning specimen is most likely to detect UTI. Samples left at room temperature for > 2 hours can give falsely high colony counts due to continuing bacterial proliferation. Criteria for culture positivity include isolation of a single bacterial species from a midstream, clean-catch, or catheterized urine specimen.

For asymptomatic bacteriuria, criteria for culture positivity based on the guidelines of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (see Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Asymptomatic Bacteriuria in Adults) are

For symptomatic patients, culture criteria are

Any positive culture result, regardless of colony count, in a sample obtained via suprapubic bladder puncture should be considered a true positive.

In midstream urine, E. coli in mixed flora may be a true pathogen (1 Diagnosis reference Bacterial urinary tract infections (UTIs) can involve the urethra, prostate, bladder, or kidneys. Symptoms may be absent or include urinary frequency, urgency, dysuria, lower abdominal pain... read more ).

Occasionally, UTI is present despite lower colony counts, possibly because of prior antibiotic therapy, very dilute urine (specific gravity < 1.003), or obstruction to the flow of grossly infected urine. Repeating the culture improves the diagnostic accuracy of a positive result, ie, may differentiate between a contaminant and a true positive result. Newer molecular urine testing may sometimes reveal unusual pathogens in patients with refractory or recurrent UTI.

Clinical differentiation between upper and lower UTI is impossible in many patients, and testing is not usually advisable. When the patient has high fever, costovertebral angle tenderness, and gross pyuria with casts, pyelonephritis is highly likely. The best noninvasive technique for differentiating bladder from kidney infection appears to be the response to a short course of antibiotic therapy. If the urine has not cleared after 3 days of treatment, pyelonephritis should be sought.

Symptoms similar to those of cystitis Cystitis Bacterial urinary tract infections (UTIs) can involve the urethra, prostate, bladder, or kidneys. Symptoms may be absent or include urinary frequency, urgency, dysuria, lower abdominal pain... read more and urethritis Urethritis Bacterial urinary tract infections (UTIs) can involve the urethra, prostate, bladder, or kidneys. Symptoms may be absent or include urinary frequency, urgency, dysuria, lower abdominal pain... read more can occur in patients with vaginitis Overview of Vaginitis Vaginitis is infectious or noninfectious inflammation of the vaginal mucosa, sometimes with inflammation of the vulva. Symptoms include vaginal discharge, irritation, pruritus, and erythema... read more , which may cause dysuria due to the passage of urine across inflamed labia. Vaginitis can often be distinguished by the presence of vaginal discharge, vaginal odor, and dyspareunia.

Men with symptoms of cystitis that do not respond to usual antimicrobial therapy may have prostatitis Prostatitis Prostatitis refers to a disparate group of prostate disorders that manifests with a combination of predominantly irritative or obstructive urinary symptoms and perineal pain. Some cases result... read more .

Seriously ill patients require evaluation for sepsis Sepsis and Septic Shock Sepsis is a clinical syndrome of life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated response to infection. In septic shock, there is critical reduction in tissue perfusion; acute failure... read more , typically with complete blood count (CBC), electrolytes, lactate, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, and blood cultures. Patients with abdominal pain or tenderness are evaluated for other causes of an acute abdomen Acute Abdominal Pain Abdominal pain is common and often inconsequential. Acute and severe abdominal pain, however, is almost always a symptom of intra-abdominal disease. It may be the sole indicator of the need... read more .

Patients who have dysuria/pyuria but no bacteriuria should have testing for a sexually transmitted infection (STI), typically using nucleic acid-based testing of swabs from the urethra and cervix (see Chlamydial Infections: Diagnosis Diagnosis Sexually transmitted urethritis, cervicitis, proctitis, and pharyngitis (that are not due to gonorrhea) are caused predominantly by chlamydiae and less frequently by mycoplasmas. Chlamydiae... read more ).

Most adults do not require assessment for structural abnormalities unless the following occur:

Urinary tract imaging Urinary tract imaging Urinary tract infection (UTI) is defined by ≥ 5 × 10⁴ colonies/mL in a catheterized urine specimen or, in older children, by repeated voided specimens with ≥ 10⁵ colonies/mL... read more choices include ultrasonography, CT, and intravenous urography (IVU). Occasionally, voiding cystourethrography, retrograde urethrography, or cystoscopy is warranted. Urologic investigation is not routinely needed in women with symptomatic cystitis or asymptomatic recurrent cystitis, because findings do not influence therapy. Children with UTI often require imaging.

Sexually active patients with symptoms are usually treated presumptively for sexually transmitted infections (STIs) pending test results. A typical regimen is ceftriaxone 500 mg IM plus either azithromycin 2 g orally once or doxycycline 100 mg orally twice a day for 7 days. All sex partners within 60 days should be evaluated. Men diagnosed with urethritis should be tested for HIV Treatment Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection results from 1 of 2 similar retroviruses (HIV-1 and HIV-2) that destroy CD4+ lymphocytes and impair cell-mediated immunity, increasing risk of certain... read more and syphilis Treatment Syphilis is caused by the spirochete Treponema pallidum and is characterized by 3 sequential symptomatic stages separated by periods of asymptomatic latent infection. Common manifestations... read more in accordance with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's 2021 STI Treatment Guidelines.

First-line treatment of uncomplicated cystitis is nitrofurantoin 100 mg orally twice a day for 5 days (it is contraindicated if creatinine clearance is < 60 mL/min), trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMX) 160/800 mg orally twice a day for 3 days, or fosfomycin 3 g orally once. Less desirable choices include a fluoroquinolone or a beta-lactam antibiotic. If cystitis recurs within a week or two, a broader spectrum antibiotic (eg, a fluoroquinolone) can be used and the urine should be cultured.

Complicated cystitis should be treated with empiric broad-spectrum antibiotics chosen based on local pathogens and resistance patterns and adjusted based on culture results. Urinary tract abnormalities must also be managed.

Treatment depends on clinical findings and urine culture results:

Typically, asymptomatic bacteriuria in patients with diabetes, older patients, or patients with chronically indwelling bladder catheters Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infections A catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI) is a urinary tract infection (UTI) in which the positive culture was taken when an indwelling urinary catheter had been in place for >... read more should not be treated. However, patients at risk of complications from asymptomatic bacteriuria (see Urinary Tract Infections (UTI): Screening Asymptomatic bacteriuria ) should have any treatable causes addressed and be given antibiotics as for cystitis Treatment Bacterial urinary tract infections (UTIs) can involve the urethra, prostate, bladder, or kidneys. Symptoms may be absent or include urinary frequency, urgency, dysuria, lower abdominal pain... read more . In pregnant women, only a few antibiotics can be safely used. Oral beta-lactams, sulfonamides, and nitrofurantoin are considered safe in early pregnancy, but trimethoprim should be avoided during the 1st trimester, and sulfamethoxazole should be avoided during the 3rd trimester, particularly near parturition. Patients with untreatable obstructive problems (eg, calculi Urinary Calculi Urinary calculi are solid particles in the urinary system. They may cause pain, nausea, vomiting, hematuria, and, possibly, chills and fever due to secondary infection. Diagnosis is based on... read more , reflux Vesicoureteral Reflux (VUR) Vesicoureteral reflux is retrograde passage of urine from the bladder back into the ureter and sometimes also into the renal collecting system, depending on severity. Reflux predisposes to urinary... read more ) may require long-term suppressive therapy.

Antibiotics are required. Outpatient treatment with oral antibiotics is possible if all of the following criteria are satisfied:

Ciprofloxacin 500 mg orally twice a day for 7 days and levofloxacin 750 mg orally once a day for 5 days are 1st-line antibiotics if < 10% of the uropathogens in the community are resistant. A 2nd option is usually TMP/SMX 160/800 mg orally twice a day for 14 days. However, local sensitivity patterns should be considered because in some parts of the US, > 20% of E. coli are resistant to sulfa.

Patients not eligible for outpatient treatment should be hospitalized and given parenteral therapy selected on the basis of local sensitivity patterns. First-line antibiotics are usually renally excreted fluoroquinolones, such as ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin. Other choices, such as ampicillin plus gentamicin, the aminoglycoside plazomicin (1 Treatment reference Bacterial urinary tract infections (UTIs) can involve the urethra, prostate, bladder, or kidneys. Symptoms may be absent or include urinary frequency, urgency, dysuria, lower abdominal pain... read more ), broad-spectrum cephalosporins (eg, ceftriaxone, cefotaxime, cefepime), aztreonam, beta-lactam/beta-lactam inhibitor combinations (ampicillin/sulbactam, ticarcillin/clavulanate, piperacillin/tazobactam), and imipenem/cilastatin, are usually reserved for patients with more complicated pyelonephritis (eg, with obstruction, calculi, resistant bacteria, or a hospital-acquired infection) or recent urinary tract instrumentation.

Parenteral therapy is continued until defervescence and other signs of clinical improvement occur. In > 80% of patients, improvement occurs within 72 hours. Oral therapy can then begin, and the patient can be discharged for the remainder of a 7- to 14-day treatment course. Complicated cases require longer courses of IV antibiotics with total duration of 2 to 3 weeks and urologic correction of anatomic defects.

Outpatient management can be considered in pregnant women with pyelonephritis, but only if symptoms are mild, close follow-up is available, and (preferably) pregnancy is < 24 weeks' gestation. Outpatient treatment is with cephalosporins (eg, ceftriaxone 1 to 2 g IV or IM, then cephalexin 500 mg orally 4 times a day for 10 days). Otherwise, 1st-line IV antibiotics include cephalosporins, aztreonam, or ampicillin plus gentamicin. If pyelonephritis is severe, possibilities include piperacillin/tazobactam or meropenem. Fluoroquinolones and TMP/SMX should be avoided. Because recurrence is common, some authorities recommend prophylaxis after the acute infection resolves with nitrofurantoin 100 mg orally or cephalexin 250 mg orally every night during the remainder of the pregnancy and for 4 to 6 weeks after pregnancy.